1. Foreign Exchange Rate Determinants and International Parity Conditions

2. Exchange Rate Determinants Questions: 1. What are the determinants of exchange rates? Exchange rates are determined by the demand and supply of one currency relative to the demand and supply of another 2. Are changes in exchange rates predictable?

3. There are no general theory of exchange rate determination Parity Condition, an economic theory, attempts to explain long-run exchange rate determinants Other numerous variables attempt to explain short-run The same set determinants will not, however, apply for all countries at all times Exchange Rate Determinants

4. Potential Foreign Exchange Rate Determinants Political Risk 1. Capital control 2. Black market 3. Exchange rate spreads 4. Risk premium on securities and FDI Infrastructure 1. Strength of banking system 2. Strength of securities market 3. Outlook to growth and profitability Speculation 1. Currencies 2. Securities 3. Uncovered interest arbitrage 4. Real estate 5. Commodities Cross-Boarder Investment 1. FDIs 2. Portfolio Investment Parity condition 1. Relative inflation rate (PPP) 2. Relative interest rate (Fisher effect and real interest differential 3. Forward exchange rate 4. Exchange rate regimes 5. Monetary reserves Spot Exchange Rate

5. The BOP Approach The BOP helps forecast a country’s market potential, esp. in the short run. (Note: A country experiencing a serious BOP deficit would not likely expand imports.) The BOP is an important indicator of pressure on a country’s exchange rate – may spell foreign exchange gain or loss, for firm trading or investing in that country. Changes in a country’s BOP may signal imposition (or removal) of controls over payment of dividends or interest, license fees, royalty fees, or other cash disbursements to foreign firms or investors.

6. Fixed Exchange Rate Countries the government bears the responsibility to ensure a near zero BOP the government is expected to intervene by buying or selling foreign exchange reserves, if the sum of the Current and Capital Accounts does not approximate to zero if the Overall Balance is greater than zero, a surplus demand for the domestic currency exists in the world. The government must sell domestic currency for foreign currencies or gold. if deficit, the government then must buy domestic currency for foreign currencies or gold. The BOP Approach

7. Floating Exchange Rate Countries the government has no responsibility to peg the foreign exchange rate The fact that if the Overall Balance does not sum to zero will, in theory, automatically alter the exchange rate in the direction necessary to obtain a near zero BOP. Example: A deficit in BOP means an excess supply of the domestic currency in the world market appears. As in the case with all goods in excess supply, the market lowers the price. Thus, the domestic currency will fall in value, and the BOP will move back towards zero. The exchange rate markets do not always follow this theory, particularly in the short- to intermediate term. The BOP Approach

8. Managed Float Exchange Rate Countries the government still relies on market conditions for day- to-day exchange rate determination. Necessary to take actions to maintain their desired exchange rate values by influencing the motivations of market activity, rather than through direct intervention. The primary action taken is to change relative interest rates, thus influencing the economic fundamentals. This is an attempt to alter CI-CO, especially the short-term portfolio. Raising domestic interest rates may attract additional capital from abroad. The BOP Approach

9. The Asset Market Approach Today, only about 2% of all Fx transactions are related to the financing of imports/exports. This suggests that 98% of Fx transactions are attributable to assets being traded in the global market. (Note: Assets denote treasury securities, corporate bonds, bank accounts, stocks, and real properties.) The asset-market approach suggests that the decision for foreigners (or willingness of foreigners) to hold claims in monetary form depends partly on relative real interest rates and also on a country’s outlook for economic growth and profitability.

10. The Asset Market Approach The approach assumes instantaneous and continuous portfolio equilibrium and that E/R are modeled as being determined by the conditions for international asset market equilibrium. Many economists reject the view that the short-term behavior of E/R is determined in flow markets. E/R are asset prices traded in an efficient financial market and therefore is determined by the willingness to hold each currency. Like other asset prices, E/R is determined by expectations about the future, not current trade flows.

11. The Asset Market Approach Example: During 1981– ‘85, the US dollar strengthened despite growing account deficits. This strength was due partly to relatively high real interest rates in the US. Another factor, however, was the heavy inflow of foreign capital into the US stock market and real estate, motivated by good long-run prospects for growth and profitability in the US.

12. Prices, Interest Rates, and Exchange Rates in Equilibrium Using the Japanese yen as an example - 1. Exchange Rates: a. Current spot rate: ¥ 104/$ b. Forward rate (1 year): ¥ 100/$ c. Expected spot rate: ¥ 100/$ d. Forward premium on yen: 4% F Y = S 0 – F x 100 = 104–100 x 100 = 4% F 100 e. Forecast change in spot rate: 4% %S = S 0 – S 1 x 100 = 104–100 x 100 = 4% S 1 100

13. 2. Forecast Rate of Inflation: a. Japan 1% b. USA 5% c. Difference -4% 3. Interest on 1-year GS a. Japan 4% b. USA 8% c. Difference -4% Prices, Interest Rates, and Exchange Rates in Equilibrium

14. International Parity Relations in Equilibrium Fisher Effect (B) PPP (A) Interest Rate Parity (D) Difference in nominal interest rates -4% (less in Japan) Forward rate as an unbiased predictor (E) International Fisher Effect (C) Forecast change in spot exchange rate +4% (yen strengthens) Forward premium on foreign currency +4% (yen strengthens) Forecast difference in rates of inflation -4% (less in Japan)

15. Economic Theories of Exchange Rate Determination Price and exchange rates: –Law of One Price –Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) - Absolute Version - Relative Version –Real Exchange Rate (RER) –Exchange Rate Pass-Through –Money Supply and Price Inflation

16. Interest rate and exchange rates: –International Fisher Effect –Fisher Effect –Interest Rate Parity –Unbiased Forward Rates Investor psychology and “Bandwagon” effects Economic Theories of Exchange Rate Determination

17. Law of One Price –In a competitive market that is free of transportation costs and trade barriers, identical products which are sold in different countries must sell for the same price when their price is expressed in terms of the same currency. –Example: US-France exchange rate is $1.2821/€. A jacket selling for €39 in Paris should retails for $50 (€39 x $1.2821/€) in New York. –Formula: P € x S = P $

18. If the prices of the two products were stated in local currencies, the exchange rate could be deduced to: Formula (Derivation):Spot Rate (S 0 ) = P H P F Where: Spot rate (S 0 ) = Exchange rate P H = Price in home country P F = Price in foreign country In the Law of One Price, if a country’s currency depreciates, its counter-party must lower its price by a similar percentage.  HC E/R 50% =  FC Price 50% Law of One Price

19. Illustration: (1) If 1 ton of steel would be sold in the US and Japan, bearing the following prices, what should be the exchange rate according to the Law of One Price formula? SteelPriceQty America$1001 ton Japan¥10,0001 ton Answer: ¥100/$ (2) If yen depreciated by 50% to ¥200/$, what should American and Japanese firms do? Answer: American firms should lower their price by 50%. Japanese firms should do nothing.

20. Rationale: Yen depreciated by 50% and is now ¥200/$ SteelPriceEquivalencyQty America$100¥20,0001 ton Japan¥10,0001 ton SteelPriceEquivalencyQty America$1001 ton Japan¥10,000$501 ton Since the yen depreciated by 50%, American firms should lower their price by 50%, to be competitive. In Japan In the US

21. Purchasing Power Parity –If the Law of One Price were true for all goods and services, the PPP exchange rate could be found from any individual set of prices. –By comparing the prices of identical products in different currencies, it should be possible to determine the ‘real’ or PPP exchange rate - if markets were efficient. –In relatively efficient markets (few impediments to trade and investment) then a ‘basket of goods’ should be roughly equivalent in each country.

22. Implied PPP Formula: Implied PPP = P HC P FC where: P HC – price in home country P FC – price in foreign country Deviation of the Implied PPP from the actual exchange rate (S 0 ): Implied PPP – 1 = +/(–) S 0 – If result is positive (+), local currency is overvalued – If result is negative (+), local currency is undervalued

23. United States $2.49 2.49 - - - Argentina P 2.50 2.91 1.0040 0.8585 17 (O) Brazil R 3.60 1.54 1.4458 1.2415 16 (O) Canada C$ 3.33 2.90 1.3373 1.5783 - 15 (U) Euro € 2.67 2.37 $0.9326/€ $0.8912/€ - 4 (U-€) Hong Kong HK$ 11.20 1.44 4.4980 7.8062 - 42 (U) Japan ¥ 262 2.59 105.22 101.25 4 (O) Russia R 39.00 1.25 15.6627 31.2020 - 50 (U) Switzerland SFr 6.30 3.78 2.5301 1.6667 52 (O) Price in Local Currency Implied PPP Actual Exchange Rate Local Currency % Over(+) or Under(-) Valuation Against Dollar Price in Dollars Big Mac Prices The Big Mac Index: PPP and Law of One Price Countries

24. PPP Theory – Absolute Version A less extreme form of the principle, in a relatively efficient market, the price of a basket of goods would be the same in each market. S = PI HC PI FC where: PI HC – price index of the home country PI FC – price index of the foreign country This is the absolute version of the PPP theory- which states that the spot exchange rate is determined by the relative prices of similar basket of goods.

25. Price Index with 2 Time Periods Example: SpotCPI (¥)CPI ($) t 0 = ¥ 225/$9085 t 1 = ?120155 If PPP is held over this time, compute S 1 of ¥/$ (¥) PPP rate = ¥ 225/$ x 120/90 155/85 = ¥ 164.42/$

26. PPP Theory – Relative Version If the spot exchange rate between two (2) countries starts in equilibrium, any change in the differential rate of inflation between them tends to be offset over the long run by an equal but opposite change in in the spot exchange rate. % Change in the spot exchange rate for foreign currency % difference in expected rates of inflation: foreign relative to home currency

27. PPP Theory – Relative Version Example: Japan’s inflation is 4% lower than the US, relative PPP would predict that yen would appreciate by 4% per annum with respect to the US dollar.   Differential ¥-$  4 % =  ¥ E xchange Rate 4 % If a country experiences inflation rates higher than those of its main trading partners, and its exchange rate does not change, its exports of goods and services will become less competitive with higher-priced domestic products. This change will lead to a current account deficit in the BOP.

28. PPP is not particularly helpful in determining what spot rate is today, but the relative change (  ) in prices/inflation between 2 countries determine change in exchange rate. Formula:S 1 = 1 +  HC S 0 1 +  FC Transformed to:S 1 = S 0 x 1 +  HC 1 +  FC Legend: S 0 = spot rate S 1 = future spot rate  = price/inflation PPP Theory – Relative Version

29. Example: If inflation is 1% in Japan and 5% in the US, and if the spot rate is ¥130/$, then (i) yen should appreciate by 4%, and dollar should depreciate by 4%. Getting S 1 :S 1 = S 0 x 1 +  HC 1 +  FC S 1 = 130 x 1.01 1.05 = ¥125.05/$ PPP Theory – Relative Version

30. Checking for the parity condition: Japan inflation 1%, US inflation 5% S 0 = ¥130/$, S 1 = ¥125.05/$ Japan as Home Country: S 0 – 1 =  FC –  HC S 1 ¥130/$ – 1 = 5% – 1% ¥125.05/$ 4% = 4% PPP Theory – Relative Version

31. Checking for the parity condition: Japan inflation 1%, US inflation 5% S 0 = ¥130/$, S 1 = ¥125.05/$ US as Home Country: S 1 – 1 =  FC –  HC S 0 ¥125.05/$ – 1 = 1% – 5% ¥130/$ – 4% = – 4% PPP Theory – Relative Version

32. Empirical Tests of PPP –Extensive testing of both absolute and relative versions of PPP and the law of one price has been done. –The test, for the most part, have not proved PPP is accurate in predicting future exchange rates. –Goods and services do not in reality move at zero cost between countries, and in fact, many goods are not “tradeable”, ex. haircuts. –Two (2) conclusions were made: (i) PPP holds up well over the very long run but poorly for shorter period time periods; (ii) the theory holds better for countries with relatively high rates of inflation and underdeveloped capital markets.

33. Nominal and Real Exchange Rate Nominal exchange rate – the E/R as specified without adjustment for transaction costs or differences in purchasing power. Nominal effective exchange rate - The unadjusted weighted average value of a country's currency relative to all major currencies being traded within an index or pool of currencies. (Note: A higher NEER coefficient (above 1) means that the home country's currency will usually be worth more than an imported currency, and a lower coefficient (below 1) means that the home currency will usually be worth less than the imported currency. The NEER also represents the approximate relative price a consumer will pay for an imported good).

34. Nominal and Real Exchange Rate Real exchange rate – the nominal E/R that has been adjusted for inflation differentials since an arbitrarily defined base period. Real effective exchange rate – the weighted average of a country’s currency relative to an index or basket of other major currencies adjusted for the effects of inflation. (Note: This will be the value that an individual consumer will pay for an imported good which will include any tariff or transportation costs associated with importing the good.)

35. Nominal and Real Exchange Rate Nominal exchange rate are highly volatile in the short-run. (They display large changes on a day-to-day, week-to-week, month-to-month basis. These E/R movements are largely unpredictable in advance.) Because price levels are much less volatile, nominal exchange rate volatility and unpredictability are reflected in real exchange rate volatility and unpredictability. Both nominal and real E/R movements are often partly reversed at a later date – a phenomenon known as overshooting. Real E/R display sustained departures from their PPP values.

36. Nominal and Real Exchange Rate Notwithstanding the previous statements, nominal E/R tend to move in the general direction predicted by PPP, i.e., countries with relatively high inflation rates tend to have depreciating currencies, the opposite happens to those with low inflation rates. In the short run, the current account appears to have little direct effect on the E/R. However, in the long run, there does appear to be an influence, i.e., countries with large current account deficits tend, on average, to have depreciating currencies.

37. Nominal and Real Exchange Rate The NEER index calculates, on a weighted average basis, the value of the subject currency at different points in time. The weights are determined by the importance a home country places on all other currencies traded within the pool, as measured by the balance of trade. On the other hand, the REER index indicates how the weighted average purchasing power of the currency has changed relative to some arbitrarily selected based period. E $ R = E $ N x C $ C FC where: E $ R – the real effective ER index for the US E $ N –the nominal effective ER index for the US C $ – US dollar cost C FC – Foreign currency cost

38. Illustration Example:1980 – 1995 ERCPI (¥)CPI ($) t 0 = ¥ 225/$9085 t 1 = ¥95/$120155 A. If PPP is held over this time, what would ¥ /$ have been in 1995? (¥) PPP rate = ¥ 225/$ x 120/90 155/85 = ¥ 164.42/$ Note: In PPP, yen did not appreciate as much as the real ER in t 1.

39. Example:1980 – 1995 ERCPI (¥)CPI ($) t 0 = ¥ 225/$9085 t 1 = ¥95/$120155 B. What happened to the real value of the yen in terms of dollars during this period? (¥) Real ER = Nominal ER X CPI FC CPI HC = 1 x 120/90 ¥ 95/$ 155/85 = $0.007697/¥ Note: In PPP, yen did not appreciate as much as the real ER in t 1. Illustration

40. Example:1980 – 1995 ERCPI (¥)CPI ($) t 0 = ¥ 225/$9085 t 1 = ¥95/$120155 C. Relationship of yen in t 0 and t 1 ? 1. Real ER of yen @ t 1 is $0.007697/ ¥ 2. Dollar value of yen @ t 0 is $0.004444/ ¥ (1 ÷ ¥ 225/$) 3. Computing for real ER change 0.007697 – 1 x 100 = 73% 0.004444 Illustration

41. Exchange Rate Pass-Through The response of imported and exported products to changes in exchange rates. If the response is 100%, there is 100% pass-through, if not 100%, pass- through is only partial, and therefore, any losses is absorbed by the company. Interpretation:  HC ER 20% =  FC Price 20% Example: P € BMW = € 35,000 X $1/ € = P $ BMW $35,000 If € were to appreciate by 20% (i.e., $1.20/ €), the price of BMW in $ should also increase by 20% (i.e.,$42,000). P € BMW = € 35,000 X $1.20/ € = P $ BMW $42,000

42. Exchange Rate Pass-Through If, let us say, the price of BMW in $ is only adjusted to $40,000 (instead of $42,000) the degree of pass-through is only 71%. Illustration: P $ BMW $40,000 – 1 = 14.29% P $ BMW $35,000 Computing for Pass-Through dollar ($) Price: 14.29% = 71% 20% Computing for Losses Absorbed by the Company: 100% - 71.45% = 29% Interpretation: Only 71% of the exchange rate was passed-through the dollar ($) price. The 29% was absorbed by BMW. Passed-through $ price Losses absorbed by BMW

43. Money Supply and Inflation PPP theory predicts that changes in relative prices (inflation rate) will result in a change in exchange rates –A country with high inflation should expect its currency to depreciate against the currency of a country with a lower inflation rate –Inflation occurs when the money supply increases faster than output increases

44. Interest Rates and Exchange Rates Theory says that interest rates reflect expectations about future exchange rates. –Fisher Effect (i = r + l). –International Fisher Effect: For any two countries, the spot exchange rate should change in an equal amount but in the opposite direction to the difference in nominal interest rates between the two countries.

45. Fisher Effect (Irving Fisher) The Fisher effect – states the relationship between interest rates and the anticipated rates of inflation. States that the nominal interest rates rise to reflect the anticipated rate of inflation. Formula: i = (1+ r) (1 +  ) – 1 Ex. 1 If the price index is expected to rise by 10% and the real rate of interest is 7%, the current nominal interest rate is 17.7% i = (1+0.07) (1+0.10) – 1 = 17.7% Formula: r = (1+i) (1/1 +  )– 1 Ex. 2 If the price index is expected to rise by 10% and the nominal rate of interest is 12%, the current real interest rate is 1.8% r = (1+0.12) (1/1+0.10 )– 1 = 1.8%

46. Fisher Effect (Irving Fisher) The Fisher effect can be stated in a number of variation of equation (such as the following). Nominal interest rate in each country is equal to the required real rate of return plus compensation for expected inflation. Formula: i = (1+ r) (1 +  ) – 1 transposed to:i = r +  +r + 1 which is further transposed to:i = r +  where: i = nominal interest rate r = required rate of return  = inflation

47. Example: If the required real rate of return (r) is 3% and expected inflation (  ) is 10%, the nominal rate (i) should be 13% (i.e., r+ , or 3%+10%). Meaning, if the investment is $1, the final amount should be from $1.03 to $1.13. The logic behind this result is that $1 next year will have the purchasing power of only $0.90 [1 x (1 – 0.10)] in terms of today’s dollars. The borrower must pay the lender $0.103 [$0.10 x (1 + 0.03)] to compensate for the erosion in the purchasing power of $1.03 [$1 x (1 + 0.03)], in addition to the $0.03 ($1 x 0.03)] necessary to provide a 3% real return. Fisher Effect (Irving Fisher)

48. In effect, Fisher Effect says that currencies with high rates of inflation should bear high interest rates than currencies with lower rates of inflation. Example: If inflation rates are as follows: US = 4% UK = 7% Fisher Effect says the nominal interest rate (i) in the UK should be higher by about 3% (7% – 4%):    i Fisher Effect (Irving Fisher)

49. The Fisher Effect when applied to two (2) countries would look as follows: In Japan: i ¥ = r ¥ +  ¥ Ex. 6% = 4% + 2% In the US: i $ = r $ +  $   Ex. 4% = 2% + 2% Fisher Effect (Irving Fisher)

50. The general version of the Fisher Effect asserts that real returns are equalized across countries through arbitrage, i.e., i H = i F In equilibrium, it should follow that the nominal interest rate (i) will approximately equal the anticipated inflation differential between 2 currencies r H – r F =    F Transposed to: 1 + r H = 1 +  H 1 + r F 1 +  F Fisher Effect (Irving Fisher)

51. Applying the Concept Russia S 0 : R48/$ Russia interest rate:10% US interest rate: 5% Mr. Klatzky, a Russian, has a certificate of time deposit in ruble. If ruble appreciates by 4% (or dollar depreciates by 4%): RET R = 10% +  = 14% If ruble depreciates by 4% (or dollar appreciates by 4%): RET R = 10% –  = 6% RET $ = 5% – 4% = 1% RET $ = 5% + 4% = 9% As the relative expected return on either dollar or ruble deposits increase, both foreigners or domestic residents respond in exactly the same way – both will want to hold on to deposits that would yield the greatest return.

52. The International Fisher Effect Differences in exchange rate and interest rate in different capital markets. Exchange rate should change in an amount equal but opposite direction of the interest rate. Relationship between the percentage change (  ) of spot rate over time and national capital market of different countries. Formula: S 0 - S 1 = i FC – i HC S 1 Transposed to:S 0 - S 1 = i FC – i HC x No. of years S 1 1 + i HC

53. Illustration: P1 10%, 5 yrsP1.6105 S 0 = P50/$ S 1 = P63.0925/$ $0.02 5%, 5 yrs.$0.03 Formula: S 1 = S 0 x (1+ iH) n (1+iF) n = P50 x (1.10) 5 (1.05) 5 = P63.0925/$ The International Fisher Effect

54. The Parity Condition of International Fisher Effect Formula: S 0 – 1 = i FC – i HC x No. of years S 1 1 + i HC 50 – 1 = 0.05 – 0.10 x 5 63.0925 1 + 0.10 - 22% = - 22%

55. Interest Rate Parity (IRP) The interest rate parity theorem is an extension of the Fisher effect to international markets. It holds that the ratio of the spot and forward rates will equal the ratio of domestic and foreign interest rates. Formula: S = 1 + i H F n 1 + i F Ex.1 – What is the forward rate on a yearly and monthly basis if the domestic and foreign interest rates are 10% and 5%, respectively. The spot rate is P47.25/$. AnnualMonthly F 1 yr. = 47.25 x 1.10F 30 = 47.25 x [1+(0.10/12)] 1.05 [1+(0.05/12)] = P49.50/$ = P47.44/$

56. The approximation of the forward rate i F – i H  S – F F Illustration The approximation of the forward rate on a yearly basis (i.e., P49.50/$) and monthly basis (i.e., P47.44/$) given that the domestic and foreign interest rates are 10% and 5%, respectively, while the spot rate is P47.25/$. AnnualMonthly 5% - 10% = 47.25 – 49.50 0.42% – 0.83% = 47.25 – 47.44 49.50 47.44 - 5% = -4.5% or - 5% - 0.41% = - 0.41% Interest Rate Parity (IRP)

57. Specifies that investors should earn the same return in all countries after adjusting for risk. 2 forces affecting investors investing outside his country, i.e., (1) ROI, and (2) Change in ER Formula (expected depreciation/appreciation of DC): i F = i H + – Discount + Premium where: i F = nominal int. rate of foreign country i H = nominal int. rate of home country Discount = Expected depreciation Premium = Expected appreciation Interest Rate Parity (IRP)

58. Illustration: ¥ 100 8 %, 90 days ¥102.00 S 0 = ¥100/$ F 90 = ¥101.49 /$ $1 2%, 90 days$1.01 Formula (for getting the forward rate): F 90 = S 0 x 1+ (i H x t) 1+ (i F x t) = ¥100 x 1 + (0.08 x 90/360) 1 + (0.02 x 90/360) = ¥ 101.49/$ Interest Rate Parity (IRP)

59. The Parity Condition of the IRP Formula (IRP – expected depreciation/appreciation of DC): i F = i H + – Discount + Premium 2% = 8% – 6% Interpretation: Yen should depreciate (or traded at a discount) by 6% after 90 days. To check for annual deviation of yen in 90 days forward: S – F x 360 = 100 – 101.49 x 360 = – 6% F n 101.49 90

60. More IRP Example: Peso Spot rate:P48.25/$ RP interest rate:10% US interest rate:4% Tenor:90 days IRP: 4% = 10% – 6% Analysis: Peso should trade at a 6% discount in the 90-days forward market.

61. Peso Spot rate:P48.25/$ RP interest rate:11% US interest rate:6% Tenor:180 days IRP: 6% = 11% – 5% Analysis: Peso should trade at a 5% discount in the 180-days forward market. More IRP Example:

62. Illustration: £100 2 %, 180 days £ 101.00 S 0 = $1.50/ £ F 180 = $1.5223 / £ $150 5%, 180 days$153.75 Formula (for getting the forward rate): F 180 = S 0 x 1+ (i F x t) 1+ (i H x t) = $1.50 x 1 + (0.05 x 180/360) 1 + (0.02 x 180/360) = $1.5223/ £ IRP: E/R Expressed in American Term

63. Formula (for IRP): i F = i H + – Discount + Premium 5% = 2% + 3% Interpretation: Pound should appreciate (or traded at a premium) by 3% after 180 days. To check for annual deviation of pound in 180 days forward: F – S x 360 = 1.5223 – 1.50 x 360 = 3% S n 1.50 180 IRP: E/R Expressed in American Term

64. In a CIA, an investor purchases a financial instrument in a particular foreign exchange denomination and the Fx risk involved in the transaction is hedged by performing a forward contract sale. The investor is able to know the exact proceeds of the transaction only if the investment is risk-free in nature and interest is received by the investor only once. The interest is paid to the investor on that particular day when the forward contract sale in foreign exchange takes place. Alternatively, there is a certain degree of foreign currency risk involved. Covered Interest Arbitrage (CIA)

65. When the market is not in equilibrium, the potential for “riskless” or arbitrage profit exists. The arbitrager who recognizes such an imbalance will move to take advantage of the disequilibrium by investing in whichever currency offers the higher return on a covered basis. Illustration: C$ 100 7 %, 90 days C$ 101.75 C$ 106.92 S 0 = C$3.75/$ F 90 = C$3.9894/$ $26.67 2%, 90 days$26.80 Arb. Profit = 106.92 – 101.75 = C$ 5.17

66. Illustration: £100 2 %, 180 days £ 101.00 £ 104.55 S 0 = $1.50/ £ F 180 = $1.4706 / £ $150 5%, 180 days$153.75 Arbitrage Profit = £ 104.55 – £101.00 = £ 3.55 CIA: E/R Expressed in American Term

67. UIA is that type of arbitrage where there is a transfer of funds to overseas locations for taking the benefit of enhanced interest rates in foreign exchange bureaus or foreign exchange agencies. In this type of investments, the domestic currency is changed over to a foreign exchange and again at maturity period, the proceeds from the foreign exchange are reconverted to the base (domestic) currency. In this approach, there is an involvement of foreign currency risk because of the probable decrease in the value of the foreign exchange in the duration of investment period. Uncovered Interest Arbitrage (UIA)

68. UIA involves the conversion of the domestic currency to the foreign currency to make investment and subsequent re- conversion of the fund from the foreign currency to the domestic currency at the time of maturity. A foreign exchange risk is involved due to the possible depreciation of the foreign currency during the period of the investment.. Illustration: C$ 100 7 %, 90 days C$ 101.75 C$ 106.92 S 0 = C$3.75/$ S 90 = C$3.9894/$ $26.67 2%, 90 days$26.80 Arb. Profit = 106.92 – 101.75 = C$ 5.17 Spot rate after 90 days

69. Investor psychology and Bandwagon Effects Evidence suggests that neither PPP nor the International Fisher Effect are good at explaining short term movements in exchange rates Explanation may be investor psychology and the bandwagon effect –Studies suggest they play a major role in short term movements –Hard to predict

70. Exchange Rate Forecasting Efficient market school: Prices reflect all available public information Inefficient market school: Prices do not reflect all available information –Use fundamental (economic theory) or technical (price/volume data) analysis to predict the exchange rate –Analysis suggest that professional forecasters are no better than forward exchange rates in predicting future spot rates

71. Approaches to Forecasting Fundamental analysis –Draws on economic theory to construct sophisticated econometric models for predicting exchange rate movements Technical analysis –Traditionally referred to as chartists. –Uses price and volume data to determine past trends that are expected to continue into the future. –The single most important element of time series analysis is that future ER are based on current ER.

72. Technical analysis (cont’d) –ER movements can be subdivided into periods: a. Day-to-day movement that is seemingly random b. Short-term movements extending from several days to trends lasting several months c. Long-term movements which are characterized by up and down long trends –Long-term technical analysis has gained new popularity as a result of recent research into the possibility that long term “waves” in currency movements exists under floating exchange rates. –However, the longer the time horizon of the forecast, the more inaccurate it is likely to be.

73. Currency Convertibility Political decision. –Many countries have some kind of restrictions Governments limit convertibility to preserve foreign exchange reserves –Service international debt –Purchase imports –Government afraid of capital flight

74. Counter Trade –Barter-like agreements where goods/services are traded for goods/services –Helps firms avoid convertibility issue

75. Managerial Implications Exchange rates influence the profitability of trade and investment deals International businesses must understand the forces that determine exchange rate –Forward exchange rate not an unbiased predictor –Inflation effects foreign exchange markets –International businesses need to take the proper precautions before trading or investing in a country