1. DNA Technology

2. Biotechnology Tools & Techniques Recombinant DNA – fragment of DNA composed of DNA sequences originating from at least two different sources Restriction Endonucleases – aka restriction enzymes – molecular scissors that cut double-stranded DNA at a specific base-pair sequence

3. Biotechnology Tools & Techniques Recognition Site -A specific sequence within double-stranded DNA where restriction enzymes recognize and cut -Usually palindromic (same front & back…eg. level, stats, racecar)

4. Biotechnology Tools & Techniques Blunt ends -DNA fragment from a restriction enzyme where the ends are base paired -Eg. SmaI, AluI Sticky ends -DNA fragment from a restriction enzyme where the ends contain short, single- stranded overhangs -Eg. EcoRI, SalI, HindIII

5. Restriction Endonucleases Isolated and purified solely from bacteria Essentially a bacteria’s immune system Also how a virus can break down host DNA Named according to the bacteria from which they originate. Example, in Escheria coli (E. Coli), the restriction enzyme is called EcoRI BAMHI comes from Bacillus amyloliquefaciens; H is the strain, 1 is b/c it’s the first endonuclease isolated from it

6. Restriction Endonuclease Cut Sites

7. Restriction Endonucleases Recognize and bind to sequences which are 4 to 8 nucleotides long Eg. EcoRI looks for 5’ GAATTC 3’ 3’ CTTAAG 5’ and cleaves (cuts) between G and A A 6 base-pair sequence like this would occur every 4x4x4x4x4x4 = 4 6 =4096 base pairs

8. Methylases Specific enzymes found in prokaryotes & eukaryotes In prokaryotes, they modify the recognition site (add a methyl group to one of the bases) which prevents the DNA from being cleaved When foreign DNA is inserted, it is not methylated, so the desired gene fragment is protected from being cleaved In eukaryotes, methylases control transcription

9. DNA Ligase Enzyme used to join the cut strands of DNA together (best for sticky ends) T4 DNA ligase (from T4 bacteriophage virus) works better for blunt ends

10. Gel Electrophoresis Process of separating DNA on the basis of size by sorting through a gel meshwork Like a molecular sieve

11. Gel electrophoresis DNA is neg. charged due to phosphate group DNA already subjected to restriction enzymes (pieces of various sizes) are loaded in wells with a buffer solution containing glycerol (dye to view the DNA) Larger fragments move through the agarose gel more slowly, smaller fragments move faster and farther

12. Gel electrophoresis Uses DC current to place a neg charge at the near end (closest to DNA); pos charge at the far end Once complete, fragments are made visible by staining (often ethidium bromide which fluoresces under UV light Not just nucleic acids – can run proteins using polyacrylamide gels

13. Plasmids Recall that bacteria contain a singular circular chromosome, along with many small, circular pieces of DNA called plasmids Plasmids carry genes which confer antibiotic resistance, as well as resistance to toxic heavy metals and industrial chemicals We can use plasmids for biotechnology, since bacteria are able to express foreign genes inserted into plasmids

14. Plasmids Relationship between bacteria and plasmids is endosymbiotic – both benefit Engineered plasmids contain a region that can be cut by many restriction endonucleases and found nowhere else on the plasmid – called the multiple cloning site

16. In which gel lane was this plasmid run?

17. Steps in Recombinant DNA 1.Plasmid DNA is cut open using R.E. 2.Gene fragment to be inserted is opened using same R.E., therefore ends will match 3.DNA ligase joins fragment to the plasmid 4.Plasmid is introduced into bacterial cell via transformation

19. Recombinant DNA Transformation – introduction of foregin DNA, usually by a plasmid or virus, into a bacterial cell Vectors – vehicles by which DNA is introduced into host cells (bacteria or viruses) Host cell – the cell that contains the foreign DNA and whose machinery is being used to express that DNA

20. Homework Good summary chart on Pg. 289 - 290 Do Q 1-6, 8, 11, 14, 15, 16, 17

21. Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)

22. PCR Amplification of DNA sequence by repeated cycles of strand separation and replication Proposed by Kary Mullis in 1987; awarded Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1992 for the discovery Direct replication of a DNA sequence without insertion into a plasmid

23. Steps in PCR 1.Heat DNA to 94-96°C to separate strands 2.Two primers (chunks of single-stranded DNA) are made which correspond to the beginning and end of DNA to be copied 3.Heat to 72°C to extend primers using Taq polymerase 4.Separate strands and anneal (join) primers 5.Extend primers 6.Repeat steps 4-6 for 30 – 40 cycles

26. PCR Useful in criminal investigations (forensics), medical diagnoses, and genetic & evolutionary biology (common ancestry) Only need small amounts of DNA

27. Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP)

28. RFLP Polymorphism – any difference in DNA sequence that can be detected between individuals Only identical twins would not be polymorphic RFLP is a process whereby differences in DNA fragment lengths between individuals are compared

29. Steps in RFLP 1.DNA extracted from sample and cut by R.E.’s 2.Digested fragments are run on a gel, which is placed in a denaturing solution against a nylon membrane 3.Single stranded DNA migrates from gel to nylon membrane using electric current = “Southern blotting” 4.Membrane soaked in solution with radioactive probes

30. Steps in RFLP 5.Radioactive probes anneal at specific locations 6.Membrane placed against X-ray film for 2 – 3 weeks 7.Radioactive probes burn image in X-ray film 8.Developed X-ray film called an autoradiogram

31. Homework Summary charts Pg. 300 and 303

32. Medical Applications Development of insulin by GE in the 1980’s HIV can be detected by PCR soon after infection Genetic mutations can be detected before the manifestation of symptoms Being able to pinpoint the location of genes will lead to more developments in gene therapy (eg. Gene inserted into adrenal gland cells which secrete a transmitter which inhibits the sensation of pain)

33. Agricultural Applications Transgenic plants – 1981 (Nestor and Chilton) Ex. Flavr Savr Tomato (gene for ripening in fruit) Crops have been genetically engineered to increase yield, hardiness, uniformity, herbicide tolerance, and insect and virus tolerance Insert polyester gene into a cotton plant to make poly-cotton fibers Transgenic corn – produces Bt toxin which kills butterflies!

34. Forensic Applications 1987 – first court case using RFLP where accused was convicted Valuable tool for investigators, but cannot convict on its own Both PCR and RFLP are used in criminal investigations depending on state of the DNA sample Both techniques provide a ‘fingerprint’