1. Statistics: Unlocking the Power of Data Lock 5 STAT 101 Dr. Kari Lock Morgan 11/20/12 Multiple Regression SECTIONS 9.2, 10.1, 10.2 Multiple explanatory variables (10.1) Partitioning variability – R 2, ANOVA (9.2) Conditions – residual plot (10.2) Transformations (not in book)

2. Statistics: Unlocking the Power of Data Lock 5 Exam 2 Grades

3. Statistics: Unlocking the Power of Data Lock 5 Exam 2 Re-grades Re-grade requests due in writing by class on Tuesday, 11/27/12 Partial credit will not be altered – only submit a re-grade request if you think you have entirely the correct answer but got points off Grades may go up or down If points were added up incorrectly, just bring me your exam (no need for an official re-grade)

4. Statistics: Unlocking the Power of Data Lock 5 Today we’ll finally learn a way to handle more than 2 variables! More than 2 variables!

5. Statistics: Unlocking the Power of Data Lock 5 Multiple regression extends simple linear regression to include multiple explanatory variables: Multiple Regression

6. Statistics: Unlocking the Power of Data Lock 5 We’ll use your current grades to predict final exam scores, based on a model from last year’s students Response: final exam score Explanatory: hw average, clicker average, exam 1, exam 2 Grade on Final

7. Statistics: Unlocking the Power of Data Lock 5 What variable is the most significant predictor of final exam score? a) Homework average b) Clicker average c) Exam 1 d) Exam 2 Grade on Final Exam 1 has the lowest p-value

8. Statistics: Unlocking the Power of Data Lock 5 The p-value for explanatory variable x i is associated with the hypotheses For intervals and p-values of coefficients in multiple regression, use a t-distribution with degrees of freedom n – k – 1, where k is the number of explanatory variables included in the model Inference for Coefficients

9. Statistics: Unlocking the Power of Data Lock 5 Estimate your score on the final exam. What type of interval do you want for this estimate? a) Confidence interval b) Prediction interval Grade on Final A confidence interval is for an average, a prediction interval is for an individual.

10. Statistics: Unlocking the Power of Data Lock 5 Estimate your score on the final exam. (hw average is out of 10, clicker average is out of 2) Grade on Final For a HW average of 9, a clicker average of 1.7, and exams scores of 80 on each exam (these were the averages for each category): 36.3 + 0.97(9) + -2.6(1.7) + 0.4(80) + 0.14(80) = 83.81

11. Statistics: Unlocking the Power of Data Lock 5 Is the clicker coefficient really negative?!? Give a 95% confidence interval for the clicker coefficient (okay to use t* = 2). Grade on Final -2.7  2×4.93 = -2.7  9.86 = (-12.56, 7.16)

12. Statistics: Unlocking the Power of Data Lock 5 Is your score on exam 2 really not a significant predictor of your final exam score?!? Grade on Final

13. Statistics: Unlocking the Power of Data Lock 5 The coefficient (and significance) for each explanatory variable depend on the other variables in the model! In predicting final exam scores, if you know someone’s score on Exam 1, it doesn’t provide much additional information to know their score on Exam 2 (both of these explanatory variables are highly correlated) Coefficients

14. Statistics: Unlocking the Power of Data Lock 5 If you take Exam 1 out of the model… Grade on Final Model with Exam 1: Now Exam 2 is significant!

15. Statistics: Unlocking the Power of Data Lock 5 Multiple Regression The coefficient for each explanatory variable is the predicted change in y for one unit change in x, given the other explanatory variables in the model! The p-value for each coefficient indicates whether it is a significant predictor of y, given the other explanatory variables in the model! If explanatory variables are associated with each other, coefficients and p-values will change depending on what else is included in the model

16. Statistics: Unlocking the Power of Data Lock 5 If you include Project 1 in the model… Grade on Final Model without Project 1:

17. Statistics: Unlocking the Power of Data Lock 5 Grades

18. Statistics: Unlocking the Power of Data Lock 5 Evaluating a Model How do we evaluate the success of a model? How we determine the overall significance of a model? How do we choose between two competing models?

19. Statistics: Unlocking the Power of Data Lock 5 Variability One way to evaluate a model is to partition variability A good model “explains” a lot of the variability in Y Total Variability Variability Explained by the Model Error Variability

20. Statistics: Unlocking the Power of Data Lock 5 Exam Scores Without knowing the explanatory variables, we can say that a person’s final exam score will probably be between 60 and 98 (the range of Y) Knowing hw average, clicker average, exam 1 and 2 grades, and project 1 grades, we can give a narrower prediction interval for final exam score We say the some of the variability in y is explained by the explanatory variables How do we quantify this?

21. Statistics: Unlocking the Power of Data Lock 5 Variability How do we quantify variability in Y? a)Standard deviation of Y b)Sum of squared deviations from the mean of Y c)(a) or (b) d)None of the above

22. Statistics: Unlocking the Power of Data Lock 5 Sums of Squares Total Variability Variability Explained by the model Error variability SSTSSMSSE

23. Statistics: Unlocking the Power of Data Lock 5 Variability If SSM is much higher than SSE, than the model explains a lot of the variability in Y

24. Statistics: Unlocking the Power of Data Lock 5 R2R2 R 2 is the proportion of the variability in Y that is explained by the model Total Variability Variability Explained by the Model

25. Statistics: Unlocking the Power of Data Lock 5 R2R2 For simple linear regression, R 2 is just the squared correlation between X and Y For multiple regression, R 2 is the squared correlation between the actual values and the predicted values

26. Statistics: Unlocking the Power of Data Lock 5 R2R2

27. Final Exam Grade

28. Statistics: Unlocking the Power of Data Lock 5 Is the model significant? If we want to test whether the model is significant (whether the model helps to predict y), we can test the hypotheses: We do this with ANOVA!

29. Statistics: Unlocking the Power of Data Lock 5 ANOVA for Regression k: number of explanatory variables n: sample size Source Model Error Total df k n-k-1 n-1 Sum of Squares SSM SSE SST Mean Square MSM = SSM/k MSE = SSE/(n-k-1) F MSM MSE p-value Use F k,n-k-1

30. Statistics: Unlocking the Power of Data Lock 5 ANOVA for Regression Source Model Error Total df 5 63 68 Sum of Squares 3125.8 1901.4 5027.2 Mean Square 625.16 30.18 F 20.71 p-value  0

31. Statistics: Unlocking the Power of Data Lock 5 Final Exam Grade

32. Statistics: Unlocking the Power of Data Lock 5 Simple Linear Regression For simple linear regression, the following tests will all give equivalent p-values: t-test for non-zero correlation t-test for non-zero slope ANOVA for regression

33. Statistics: Unlocking the Power of Data Lock 5 Mean Square Error (MSE) Mean square error (MSE) measures the average variability in the errors (residuals) The square root of MSE gives the standard deviation of the residuals (giving a typical distance of points from the line) This number is also given in the R output as the residual standard error, and is known as s  in the textbook

34. Statistics: Unlocking the Power of Data Lock 5 Final Exam Grade

35. Statistics: Unlocking the Power of Data Lock 5 Simple Linear Model Residual standard error =  MSE = s e estimates the standard deviation of the residuals (the spread of the normal distributions around the predicted values)

36. Statistics: Unlocking the Power of Data Lock 5 Residual Standard Error Use the fact that the residual standard error is 5.494 and your predicted final exam score to compute an approximate 95% prediction interval for your final exam score NOTE: This calculation only takes into account errors around the line, not uncertainty in the line itself, so your true prediction interval will be slightly wider

37. Statistics: Unlocking the Power of Data Lock 5 Revisiting Conditions For simple linear regression, we learned that the following should hold for inferences to be valid: Linearity Constant variability of the residuals Normality of the residuals How do we assess the first two conditions in multiple regression, when we can no longer visualize with a scatterplot?

38. Statistics: Unlocking the Power of Data Lock 5 Residual Plot A residual plot is a scatterplot of the residuals against the predicted responses Should have: 1)No obvious pattern or trend (linearity) 2)Constant variability

39. Statistics: Unlocking the Power of Data Lock 5 Residual Plots Obvious patternVariability not constant

40. Statistics: Unlocking the Power of Data Lock 5 Final Exam Score Are the conditions satisfied? (a) Yes(b) No

41. Statistics: Unlocking the Power of Data Lock 5 Transformations If the conditions are not satisfied, there are some common transformations you can apply to the response variable You can take any function of y and use it as the response, but the most common are log(y) (natural logarithm - ln)  y (square root) y 2 (squared) e y (exponential))

42. Statistics: Unlocking the Power of Data Lock 5 log(y) Original Response, y : Logged Response, log(y) :

43. Statistics: Unlocking the Power of Data Lock 5 yy Original Response, y : Square root of Response,  y :

44. Statistics: Unlocking the Power of Data Lock 5 y2y2 Original Response, y : Squared response, y 2 :

45. Statistics: Unlocking the Power of Data Lock 5 eyey Original Response, y : Exponentiated Response, e y :

46. Statistics: Unlocking the Power of Data Lock 5 Over-fitting It is possible to over-fit a model: to include too many explanatory variables The fewer the coefficients being estimated, the better they will be estimated Usually, a good model has pruned out explanatory variables that are not helping

47. Statistics: Unlocking the Power of Data Lock 5 R2R2 Adding more explanatory variables will only make R 2 increase or stay the same Adding another explanatory variable can not make the model explain less, because the other variables are all still in the model Is the best model always the one with the highest proportion of variability explained, and so the highest R 2 ? (a) Yes(b) No

48. Statistics: Unlocking the Power of Data Lock 5 Adjusted R 2 Adjusted R 2 is like R 2, but takes into account the number of explanatory variables As the number of explanatory variables increases, adjusted R 2 gets smaller than R 2 One way to choose a model is to choose the model with the highest adjusted R 2

49. Statistics: Unlocking the Power of Data Lock 5 Final Exam Grade

50. Statistics: Unlocking the Power of Data Lock 5 How do we decide which explanatory variables to include in the model? How do we use categorical explanatory variables? What is the coefficient of one explanatory variable depends on the value of another explanatory variable? To Come…

51. Statistics: Unlocking the Power of Data Lock 5 To Do Read 9.2, 10.1, 10.2 Do Homework 8 (due Thursday, 11/29)Homework 8 Do Project 2 (poster due Monday, 12/3, paper due 12/6)Project 2