1. CONGESTION CONTROL

2. Congestion Control
When one part of the subnet (e.g. one or more routers in an area) becomes overloaded, congestion results.
Because routers are receiving packets faster than they can forward them, one of two things must happen:
The subnet must prevent additional packets from entering the congested region until those already present can be processed.
The congested routers can discard queued packets to make room for those that are arriving.

3. Factors that Cause Congestion
Packet arrival rate exceeds the outgoing link capacity.
Insufficient memory to store arriving packets
Bursty traffic
Slow processor

4. Congestion Control, cont.
Congestion Control is concerned with efficiently using a network at high load.
Several techniques can be employed. These include:
Warning bit
Choke packets
Load shedding
Random early discard
Traffic shaping
The first 3 deal with congestion detection and recovery. The last 2 deal with congestion avoidance.

5. Warning Bit
A special bit in the packet header is set by the router to warn the source when congestion is detected.
The bit is copied and piggy-backed on the ACK and sent to the sender.
The sender monitors the number of ACK packets it receives with the warning bit set and adjusts its transmission rate accordingly.

6. Choke Packets
A choke packet is a control packet generated at a congested node and transmitted to restrict traffic flow.
The source, on receiving the choke packet must reduce its transmission rate by a certain percentage.

7. Choke Packets 1 2 3 6 5 4 7 Flow is reduced. Choke Choke Heavy flow

8. Hop-by-Hop Choke Packets
Over long distances or at high speeds choke packets are not very effective.
A more efficient method is to send to choke packets hop-by-hop.
This requires each hop to reduce its transmission even before the choke packet arrive at the source.

9. Hop-by-Hop Choke Packets1 2 3
Choke
Choke
Heavy
flow
Reduced
flow
To provide quick
relief at the point
of congestion at
the price of using
up more buffers
upstream. 5 4
Choke
Flow is reduced.

10. Load Shedding
When buffers become full, routers simply discard packets.
For a file transfer, for, e.g. cannot discard older packets since this will cause a gap in the received data.
For real-time voice or video it is probably better to throw away old data and keep new packets.
Get the application to mark packets with discard priority.

11. Random Early Discard (RED)
This is a proactive approach in which the router discards one or more packets before the buffer becomes completely full.
Each time a packet arrives, the RED algorithm computes the average queue length, avg.
If avg is lower than some lower threshold, congestion is assumed to be minimal or non-existent and the packet is queued.

12. RED, cont.
If avg is greater than some upper threshold, congestion is assumed to be serious and the packet is discarded.
If avg is between the two thresholds, this might indicate the onset of congestion. The probability of congestion is then calculated.

13. Traffic Shaping
Another method of congestion control is to “shape” the traffic before it enters the network.
Traffic shaping controls the rate at which packets are sent (not just how many). Used in Integrated Services networks.
At connection set-up time, the sender and carrier negotiate a traffic pattern (shape).
Two traffic shaping algorithms are:
Leaky Bucket
Token Bucket

14. The Leaky Bucket Algorithm
The Leaky Bucket Algorithm used to control rate in a network. It is implemented as a single-server queue with constant service time. If the bucket (buffer) overflows then packets are discarded.

15. Leaky
Bucket

16. The Leaky Bucket Algorithm
(a) A leaky bucket with water. (b) a leaky bucket with packets.

17. Flowchart for Leaky
Bucket Algorithm

18. Token Bucket Algorithm
In contrast to the LB, the Token Bucket Algorithm, allows the output rate to vary, depending on the size of the burst.
In the TB algorithm, the bucket holds tokens. To transmit a packet, the host must capture and destroy one token.
Tokens are generated by a clock at the rate of one token every t sec.
Idle hosts can capture and save up tokens (up to the max. size of the bucket) in order to send larger bursts later.

19. The Token Bucket Algorithm
5-34
(a) Before (b) After.

20. Token bucket

21. Leaky Bucket vs Token Bucket
LB discards packets; TB does not. TB discards tokens.
With TB, a packet can only be transmitted if there are enough tokens to cover its length in bytes.
LB sends packets at an average rate. TB allows for large bursts to be sent faster by speeding up the output.
TB allows saving up tokens (permissions) to send large bursts. LB does not allow saving.

22. Types of Fragmentation
(a) Transparent fragmentation. (b) Nontransparent fragmentation.
Transparent Fragmentation
Non-Transparent Fragmentation

23. Elementary Fragmentation

24. Internetworking Devices
Layer 1: Repeater or Amplifier
To amplify or regenerate signals
Layer 2: (Multi-protocol) Bridge
Store-and-forward device
Headers at layer 2 are translated if necessary.
Layer 3: (Multi-protocol) Router
Headers at layer 3 (and layer 2) are translated if necessary.
Layer 4~7: Transport/Application Gateway

25. Devices on the Market Repeater, Hub Bridge
(Multi-protocol) Router, Layer 3 Switch
Layer 4 Switch
Gateway with interfaces of distinct layer protocols
Bridge/Router (or called B-Router)

26. How Networks Differ Service offered Protocol Addressing
Connection-oriented versus Connectionless
Protocol
IP, IPX, CLNP, AppleTalk, DECnet, etc.
Addressing
Flat (802) versus hierarchical (IP, PDN, PSTN, ISDN, etc.)
Multicasting/Broadcasting
Present or absent

27. How Networks Differ (Cont.)
Packet size
Every network has its own maximum
Quality of service
Present or absent
Error handling
Reliable, ordered, and unordered delivery
Flow control
Sliding window, rate control, others, or none

28. How Networks Differ (Cont.)
Congestion control
Leaky bucket, choke packets, etc.
Security
Privacy rules, encryption, etc.
Parameters
Different timeouts, flow specifications, etc.
Accounting
By connection time, by packet, by byte, or not at all