1. © Cengage Learning 2015 LIVING IN THE ENVIRONMENT, 18e G. TYLER MILLER SCOTT E. SPOOLMAN © Cengage Learning 2015 18 Air Pollution

2. © Cengage Learning 2015 The South Asian Brown Clouds –Stretch across much of India, Bangladesh, China, and the western Pacific Ocean Air pollution connects the world –Pollutants can circle the globe in about two weeks Stricter air pollution standards and continued shifts towards cleaner fuels are needed Core Case Study: South Asia’s Massive Brown Clouds

3. © Cengage Learning 2015 The South Asia's Brown Clouds (cont'd.) Fig. 18-1a, p. 474

4. © Cengage Learning 2015 The two innermost layers of the atmosphere –Troposphere – supports life –Stratosphere – contains the protective ozone layer 18-1: What is the Nature of the Atmosphere?

5. © Cengage Learning 2015 Atmosphere – thin blanket of gases surrounding the Earth Density – number of gas molecules per unit of air volume –Density decreases as you move higher in the atmosphere The Atmosphere Consists of Several Layers

6. © Cengage Learning 2015 Fig. 18-2, p. 475 Atmospheric pressure (millibars) Temperature Thermosphere Mesosphere Altitude (miles) Altitude (kilometers) Stratosphere Ozone layer Pressure Troposphere (Sea level) Pressure = 1,000 millibars at ground level Temperature (˚C)

7. © Cengage Learning 2015 Troposphere –75–80% of Earth’s air mass –Closest to Earth's surface –Composition of gases 78% nitrogen; 21% oxygen –Rising and falling air currents and greenhouse gases play a major role in weather and climate Air Movements in the Troposphere Play a Key Role in Earth’s Weather and Climate

8. © Cengage Learning 2015 Stratosphere –Similar composition to the troposphere except that it contains: Much less water Ozone layer (O 3 ) –Filters 95% of harmful UV radiation –Allows life to exist on land The Stratosphere Is Our Global Sunscreen

9. © Cengage Learning 2015 Pollutants mix in the air to form industrial smog –Primarily as a result of burning coal and photochemical smog –Caused by emissions from motor vehicles, industrial facilities, and power plants 18-2: What Are the Major Outdoor Pollution Problems?

10. © Cengage Learning 2015 Air pollution – presence of chemicals in the atmosphere –Concentrations high enough to harm organisms, ecosystems, human-made materials, and to alter climate Natural sources –Dust blown by wind –Pollutants from wildfires and volcanoes –Volatile organics released by plants Air Pollution Comes from Natural and Human Sources

11. © Cengage Learning 2015 Human sources –Mostly in industrialized and/or urban areas –Stationary sources – power plants and industrial facilities –Mobile sources – motor vehicles Air Pollution Comes from Natural and Human Sources (cont’d.)

12. © Cengage Learning 2015 Primary pollutants –Emitted directly into the air Secondary pollutants –From reactions of primary pollutants Some Pollutants in the Atmosphere Combine to Form Other Pollutants

13. © Cengage Learning 2015 Sources and Types of Air Pollutants Fig. 18-3, p. 477 Primary Pollutants CO CO 2 Secondary Pollutants SO 2 NO NO 2 CH 4 and most other hydrocarbons CH 4 and most other hydrocarbons SO 3 Most suspended particles H2O2H2O2 H2O2H2O2 H 2 SO 4 PANs Most NO 3 – and SO 4 2– salts Natural Source Stationary Human Source Mobile N2ON2ON2ON2O O3O3 O3O3 HNO 3

14. © Cengage Learning 2015 Carbon oxides –Carbon monoxide (CO); carbon dioxide (CO2) Nitrogen oxides (NO) and nitric acid (HNO3) –Acid deposition; photochemical smog Does the benefit of the lessened atmospheric warming due to the South Asian Brown Clouds outweigh their harmful effects? What Are the Major Outdoor Air Pollutants?

15. © Cengage Learning 2015 Sulfur dioxide (SO2) and sulfuric acid (H2SO4) Particulates –Suspended particulate matter Ozone Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) –Methane What Are the Major Outdoor Air Pollutants? (cont’d.)

16. Chemical Reactions That Form Major Outdoor Air Pollutants Table 18-1, p. 480

17. © Cengage Learning 2015 Acid Deposition Fig. 18-4, p. 478

18. © Cengage Learning 2015 In air, water, soil, plants, and animals Does not break down in the environment Impacts human health and environment –Children are most vulnerable –Can cause death, brain damage, and paralysis How can we reduce lead in the environment? Case Study: Lead Is a Highly Toxic Pollutant

19. © Cengage Learning 2015 Chemical composition of industrial smog –Sulfur dioxide, sulfuric acid, and suspended solid particles Formed from the burning of fossil fuels –Carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and soot result How are pollutants formed from burning coal and oil? Burning Coal Produces Industrial Smog

20. © Cengage Learning 2015 Burning coal and oil Oxygen (O 2 ) Stepped Art Ammonium sulfate [(NH 4 ) 2 SO 4 ] Ammonia (NH 3 ) Sulfuric acid (H 2 SO 4 ) Water vapor (H 2 O) Sulfur trioxide (SO 3 ) Oxygen (O 2 ) Sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ) Sulfur (S) in coal and oil Carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) Carbon (C) in coal and oil Fig. 18-8, p. 481

21. © Cengage Learning 2015 Photochemical smog VOCs + NOx + Heat + Sunlight yields: –Ground level O3 and other photochemical oxidants –Aldehydes –Other secondary pollutants Sunlight Plus Cars Equals Photochemical Smog

22. © Cengage Learning 2015 PANS and other pollutants Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) Ozone (O 3 ) Oxygen (O 2 ) Nitric oxide (NO) + Oxygen atom (O) Water vapor (H 2 O) HydrocarbonsUV radiation Peroxyacyl nitrates (PANs) Nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ) Oxygen (O 2 ) Nitric oxide (NO) Oxygen (O 2 ) Burning fossil fuels Nitrogen (N) in fossil fuel Fig. 18-9, p. 483 Photochemical Smog

23. © Cengage Learning 2015 Outdoor air pollution may be decreased by: –Settling of particles due to gravity –Rain and snow –Salty sea spray from the ocean –Winds –Chemical reactions Several Factors Can Decrease or Increase Outdoor Air Pollution

24. © Cengage Learning 2015 Outdoor air pollution may be increased by: –Urban buildings –Hills and mountains –High temperatures –Emissions of VOCs from certain trees and plants –The grasshopper effect –Temperature inversions Warm air above cool air prevents mixing Several Factors Can Decrease or Increase Outdoor Air Pollution (cont’d.)

25. © Cengage Learning 2015 A Temperature Inversion Fig. 18-11, p. 484 Warmer air Increasing altitude Decreasing temperature Sea breeze Inversion layer Descending warm air mass

26. © Cengage Learning 2015 Caused mainly by coal-burning power plants and motor vehicle emissions Threatens human health, aquatic life and ecosystems, forests, and human-built structures in some regions 18-3: What Is Acid Deposition and Why Is It a Problem?

27. © Cengage Learning 2015 Acid deposition –Sulfuric acid and nitric acid compounds –Wet deposition – rain, snow, fog, cloud vapor –Dry deposition – particles Substances remain in the atmosphere 2- 14 days What are some ways in which your daily activities contribute to acid deposition? Acid Disposition Is a Serious Regional Air Pollution Problem

28. © Cengage Learning 2015 Natural Capital Degradation: Acid Deposition Fig. 18-12, p. 485 Transformation to sulfuric acid (H 2 SO 4 ) and nitric acid (HNO 3 ) Windborne ammonia gas and some soil particles partially neutralize acids and form dry sulfate and nitrate salts Wet acid deposition (droplets of H 2 SO 4 and HNO 3 dissolved in rain and snow) Nitric oxide (NO) Sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ) and NO Dry acid deposition (sulfur dioxide gas and particles of sulfate and nitrate salts) Acid fog Lakes in deep soil high in limestone are buffered Lakes in shallow soil low in limestone become acidic Wind

29. © Cengage Learning 2015 Current and Possible Future Acid Rain Problem Areas Fig. 18-13, p. 486

30. © Cengage Learning 2015 Human health –Respiratory disorders; toxins from fish Release of toxic metals Aquatic ecosystems –Lowers pH and kills organisms Leaching of soil nutrients Forest damage Damage to buildings, etc. Acid Deposition Has a Number of Harmful Effects

31. © Cengage Learning 2015 Fig. 18-15, p. 488 Solutions Acid Deposition PreventionCleanup Reduce coal use and burn only low-sulfur coal Add lime to neutralize acidified lakes Use natural gas and renewable energy resources in place of coal Add phosphate fertilizer to neutralize acidified lakes Remove SO 2 and NO x from smokestack gases and remove NO x from motor vehicular exhaust Tax SO 2 emissions Add lime to neutralize acidified soils

32. © Cengage Learning 2015 The most threatening indoor air pollutants: –Smoke and soot from the burning of wood and coal in cooking fires (mostly in less- developed countries) –Cigarette smoke –Chemicals used in building materials and cleaning products 18-4: What Are the Major Indoor Air Pollution Problems?

33. © Cengage Learning 2015 In developing countries –Indoor burning of wood, charcoal, dung, crop residues, coal –Greatest risk to low-income populations In developed countries –Indoor air pollution is greater than outdoor air pollution –Chemicals used in building materials Indoor Air Pollution Is a Serious Problem

34. Fig. 18-17, p. 489 Chloroform Source: Chlorine-treated water in hot showers Possible threat: Cancer Para-dichlorobenzene Source: Air fresheners, mothball crystals Threat: Cancer Tetrachloroethylene Source: Dry-cleaning fluid fumes on clothes Threat: Nerve disorders, damage to liver and kidneys, possible cancer Formaldehyde Source: Furniture stuffing, paneling, particleboard, foam insulation Threat: Irritation of eyes, throat, skin, and lungs; nausea; dizziness 1,1,1-Trichloroethane Source: Aerosol sprays Threat: Dizziness, irregular breathing Styrene Source: Carpets, plastic products Threat: Kidney and liver damage Nitrogen oxides Source: Unvented gas stoves and kerosene heaters, woodstoves Threat: Irritated lungs, children's colds, headaches Benzo-α-pyrene Source: Tobacco smoke, woodstoves Threat: Lung cancer Particulates Source: Pollen, pet dander, dust mites, cooking smoke particles Threat: Irritated lungs, asthma attacks, itchy eyes, runny nose, lung disease Radon-222 Source: Radioactive soil and rock surrounding foundation, water supply Threat: Lung cancer Tobacco smoke Source: Cigarettes Threat: Lung cancer, respiratory ailments, heart disease Asbestos Source: Pipe insulation, vinyl ceiling and floor tiles Threat: Lung disease, lung cancer Carbon monoxide Source: Faulty furnaces, unvented gas stoves and kerosene heaters, woodstoves Threat: Headaches, drowsiness, irregular heartbeat, death Methylene chloride Source: Paint strippers and thinners Threat: Nerve disorders, diabetes

35. © Cengage Learning 2015 Indoor air pollution risk –Children under five and the elderly –Sick –Pregnant women –People with respiratory disorders or heart problems –Smokers –Factory workers Indoor Air Pollution Is a Serious Problem (cont’d.)

36. © Cengage Learning 2015 Four most dangerous indoor air pollutants in more-developed countries –Tobacco smoke –Formaldehyde –Radioactive radon-222 gas –Very small (ultrafine) particles Other indoor pollutants –Pesticide residues, lead particles, air-borne spores (mold, mildew) Indoor Air Pollution Is a Serious Problem (cont’d.)

37. © Cengage Learning 2015 Sources –Underground deposits of certain minerals Human health risks –Decays into Polonium-210 Can expose the lungs to high amounts of radiation How can you test for and correct a radon problem? Case Study: Radioactive Radon Gas

38. Case Study: Radioactive Radon Gas (cont’d.) Fig. 18-19, p. 491 Outlet vents for furnace, dryer, and woodstove Open window Openings around pipes Cracks in wall Slab joints Wood stove Clothes dryer Cracks in floor Sump pump Furnace Uranium-238 Radon-222 gas Soil

39. © Cengage Learning 2015 Air pollution can contribute to: –Asthma –Chronic bronchitis –Emphysema –Lung cancer –Heart attack –Stroke 18-5: What Are the Health Effects of Air Pollution?

40. © Cengage Learning 2015 The respiratory system protects from air pollutants through: –Hair –Cilia –Mucus Effects of smoking and prolonged air pollution exposure –Chronic bronchitis –Emphysema Your Body’s Natural Defenses Against Air Pollution Can Be Overwhelmed

41. © Cengage Learning 2015 Major Components of the Human Respiratory System Fig. 18-21, p. 492 Epithelial cell Cilia Nasal cavity Oral cavity Goblet cell (secreting mucus) Pharynx (throat) Mucus Trachea (windpipe) Bronchus Bronchioles Right lung Alveolar duct Bronchioles Alveolar sac (sectioned) Alveoli

42. © Cengage Learning 2015 3.2 million deaths per year worldwide –Mostly in Asia; 1.2 million in China –150,000 to 350,000 in the United States EPA proposed stricter emission standards for diesel-powered vehicles –125,000 die in U.S. each year from diesel fumes –Emissions from one truck = 150 cars Air Pollution Is a Big Killer

43. © Cengage Learning 2015 Premature Deaths from Air Pollution in the U.S. Fig. 18-22, p. 493

44. © Cengage Learning 2015 Legal, economic, and technological tools can help us to clean up air pollution However, the best solution is to prevent it 18-6: How Should We Deal with Air Pollution?

45. © Cengage Learning 2015 United States –Clean Air Acts: 1970, 1977, and 1990 created regulations enforced by states and cities EPA –National ambient air quality standards for six outdoor pollutants Carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide, suspended particulate matter, ozone, and lead Laws and Regulations Can Reduce Outdoor Air Pollution

46. © Cengage Learning 2015 EPA’s national emission standards for 188 hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) Toxic Release Inventory (TRI) Some successes in the United States –Decrease in emissions –Use of low-sulfur diesel fuel Less-developed countries –Have more challenges with reducing air pollution Laws and Regulations Can Reduce Outdoor Air Pollution (cont’d.)

47. © Cengage Learning 2015 Emission trading or cap-and-trade program –Success depends on: How low initial cap is set How often it is lowered We Can Use the Marketplace to Reduce Outdoor Air Pollution

48. © Cengage Learning 2015 Stationary source air pollution Motor vehicle air pollution Less-developed countries are far behind developed countries in implementing solutions –Non-existent and/or weak laws There Are Many Ways to Reduce Outdoor Air Pollution

49. Solutions Stationary Source Air Pollution PreventionReduction or Disposal Burn low-sulfur coal or remove sulfur from coal Convert coal to a liquid or gaseous fuel Remove pollutants from smokestack gases Switch from coal to natural gas and renewables Tax each unit of pollution produced Disperse emissions (which can increase downwind pollution) with tall smokestacks Fig. 18-25, p. 495

50. Fig. 18-26, p. 496 Motor Vehicle Air Pollution PreventionCleanup Walk bike or use mass transit Require emission control devices Inspect car exhaust systems twice a year Improve fuel efficiency Get older, polluting cars off the road Set strict emission standards Solutions

51. © Cengage Learning 2015 Greater threat to human health than outdoor pollution What can be done? –Prevention –Cleanup Reducing Indoor Air Pollution Should Be a Priority

52. Fig. 18-27, p. 496 Indoor Air Pollution Prevention Ban indoor smoking Use adjustable fresh air vents for work spaces Reduction and Dilution Set stricter formaldehyde emissions standards for carpet, furniture, and building materials Circulate air more frequently Circulate a building’s air through rooftop greenhouses Prevent radon infiltration Use less polluting cleaning agents, paints, and other products Use efficient venting systems for wood- burning stoves Solutions

53. © Cengage Learning 2015 How can we avoid producing these pollutants in the first place? –Place political and economic pressure on government officials and companies We Can Emphasize Pollution Prevention

54. © Cengage Learning 2015 Widespread use of certain chemicals has: –Reduced ozone levels in the stratosphere –Allowed more harmful ultraviolet radiation to reach the earth’s surface To reverse ozone depletion: –Stop producing ozone-depleting chemicals –Adhere to the international treaties that ban such chemicals 18-17: How Have We Depleted Ozone in the Stratosphere & What Can We Do?

55. © Cengage Learning 2015 Ozone is thinning over Antarctica and the Arctic Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) –Persistent chemicals that attack ozone in the stratosphere Our Use of Certain Chemicals Threatens the Ozone Layer

56. © Cengage Learning 2015 Ozone Degradation Fig. 18-30, p. 498

57. © Cengage Learning 2015 Ozone protects the earth’s surface from damaging UV radiation –Human health concerns –UV radiation affects plankton Why Should We Worry About Ozone Depletion?

58. © Cengage Learning 2015 Stop producing ozone-depleting chemicals immediately Agreements with a prevention approach: –Montreal Protocol Cut emissions of CFCs –Copenhagen Amendment Accelerated phase-out We Can Reverse Stratospheric Ozone Depletion

59. © Cengage Learning 2015 Outdoor air pollution, in the forms of industrial smog, photochemical smog, and acid deposition, and indoor air pollution are serious global problems Each year, at least 2.4 million people die prematurely from the effects of air pollution; indoor air pollution, primarily in less-developed countries, causes about two-thirds of those deaths Big Ideas

60. © Cengage Learning 2015 We need to give top priority status to the prevention of outdoor and indoor air pollution throughout the world and the reduction of stratospheric ozone depletion Big Ideas (cont’d.)

61. © Cengage Learning 2015 Three principles of sustainability –Rely more on direct and indirect forms of solar energy than on fossils fuels –Recycle and reuse much more of what we use –Use a diverse set of nonpolluting or low- polluting renewable energy resources Tying it All Together