1. Ten Steps to Complex Learning
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COMPONENT 2
COMPONENT 3
COMPONENT 4
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1 Design Learning Tasks
4 Design Supportive
Information
7 Design Procedural
Information
10 Design Part-
Task Practice
2 Develop Assessment Instruments
3 Sequence Learning Tasks
5 Analyze Cognitive Strategies
6 Analyze Mental Models
8 Analyze Cognitive Rules
9 Analyze Prerequisite Knowledge
Tutorial
Ten Steps to Complex Learning
Welcome to this online tutorial on Ten Steps to Complex Learning. The Ten Steps provide a systematic approach to four-component instructional design (4C/ID for short).
4C/ID builds educational programs from four components:
Learning tasks
Supportive information
Procedural information
Part-task practice
The 4C/ID model has been fully described in the book Training Complex Cognitive Skills (1997).
Ten Steps to Complex Learning (2007/2013) not only describes how to design the four components, but also how to perform six auxiliary activities that form part of a systematic instructional design process.
Navigating Through the Tutorial
Click in the navigation toolbar at the top of the page to go to one particular component or step.
The buttons ‘previous’ and ‘next’ at the bottom of the screen will take you to the previous or next page.
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The button ‘Examples’ at the bottom of the page will take you to examples exemplying the theory described at that page.
This tutorial describes the ten steps to complex learning.
These steps make it possible to systematically design educational programs that are based on four components.
The four components are: learning tasks, supportive information, procedural information, and part-task practice.
The four-component instructional design model is described in the book Training Complex Cognitive Skills.
And the Ten Steps to Complex Learning are described in the book with the same name.
E-lecture

2. The Four Components E-lecture
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1 Design Learning Tasks
4 Design Supportive
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7 Design Procedural
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10 Design Part-
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2 Develop Assessment Instruments
3 Sequence Learning Tasks
5 Analyze Cognitive Strategies
6 Analyze Mental Models
8 Analyze Cognitive Rules
9 Analyze Prerequisite Knowledge
The Four Components
4 Part-Task Practice provides additional practice on routine aspects of learning tasks that need to become fully automated. It only starts after learners have become familiar with the routine aspect in the context of whole, meaningful learning tasks.
1 Learning Tasks are typically based on real-life or professional tasks and provide concrete experiences to learners. A series of learning tasks serves as the backbone of an educational program.
3 Procedural Information tells learners how to perform routine aspects of learning tasks (how-to instructions). It is best presented to them just-in-time, precisely when they need it during their work on learning tasks.
This figure shows the four components and how they are interrelated.
The big circles indicate learning tasks – these are prefebably based on real-life tasks and a series of learning tasks forms the backbone of the educational program.
The L-shaped figure indicates supportive information – this information helps learners to perform the non-routine aspects of learning tasks and is make available to them before or during their work on the learning tasks.
The arrows indicate procedural information – this information helps learner to perform the routine aspects of learning tasks and is provided just in time, precisely when learners need it.
The small circles indicate part-task practice – this provides additional repetitive practice for routine aspects that need to be fully automated by the learners.
2 Supportive Information helps learners to perform non-routine aspects (problem solving, reasoning, decision making) of learning tasks. It is presented to them before they start working on learning tasks and/or made available to them while they are working on these tasks.
E-lecture

3. The Ten Steps E-lecture
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1 Design Learning Tasks
4 Design Supportive
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7 Design Procedural
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10 Design Part-
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2 Develop Assessment Instruments
3 Sequence Learning Tasks
5 Analyze Cognitive Strategies
6 Analyze Mental Models
8 Analyze Cognitive Rules
9 Analyze Prerequisite Knowledge
The Ten Steps
The Ten Steps provide a systematic approach to designing educational programs based on the four components. Four of the steps directly relate to the four components (see Table):
Step 1. Design Learning Tasks
Step 4. Design Supportive Information
Step 7. Design Procedural Information
Step 10. Design Part-Task Practice
All other steps are auxiliary.
Step 2 is used to develop assessment instruments that make if possible to assess learners’ performance on the learning tasks. Step 3 is used to sequence learning tasks from simple to complex.
Steps 5 and 6 are used to analyze cognitive strategies and mental models that underlie supportive information.
Steps 8 and 9 are used to analyze cognitive rules and prerequisite knowledge that underlie procedural information. Cognitive rules are also needed to design part-task practice.
Component
Step
LEARNING TASKS
Design Learning Tasks
Develop Assessment Instruments
Sequence Learning Tasks
SUPPORTIVE INFORMATION
Design Supportive Information
Analyze Cognitive Strategies
Analyze Mental Models
PROCEDURAL INFORMATION
Design Procedural Information
Analyze Cognitive Rules
Analyze Prerequisite Knowledge
PART-TASK PRACTICE
Design Part-Task Practice
The ten steps provide a systematic approach to the design of educational programs.
Four of the ten steps correspondend with the four components: design learning tasks, design supportive information, design procedural information, and design part-task practice.
The other six steps are auxiliary.
Step 2 pertains to the development of assessment instruments.
Step 3 pertains to the sequencing of learning tasks from simple to complex.
Steps 5 and 6 pertain to the analysis of cognitive strategies and mental models that underly supportive information.
And steps 8 and 9 pertain tot the analysis of cognitive rules and prerequisite knowledge that underly procedural information.
E-lecture

4. Design Learning Tasks E-lecture Step 1
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1 Design Learning Tasks 1/3
4 Design Supportive
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7 Design Procedural
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10 Design Part-
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2 Develop Assessment Instruments
3 Sequence Learning Tasks
5 Analyze Cognitive Strategies
6 Analyze Mental Models
8 Analyze Cognitive Rules
9 Analyze Prerequisite Knowledge
Step 1
Design Learning Tasks
In the schema above for an educational program, learning tasks are indicated as circles. It can be problems that must be solved by the learners, professional task that need to be performed, cases that must be studied, projects that are conducted by small groups of students, and so forth.
Learning tasks are preferably based on real-life or professional tasks. This ensures that the tasks make an appeal on knowledge, skills as well as attitudes. Such integration has positive effects on transfer of learning, that is, the ability to transfer what has been learned to new professional situations or real life.
Learning tasks drive learning from concrete experiences or ‘learning by doing’. The main underlying learning process is inductive learning.
Step 1 is the design of learning tasks, indicated by large circles.
It can be problems that must be solved by the learners, projects that are performed in small groups, cases that must be studied, and so forth.
They are preferaby based on real-life tasks, so that they make on appeal on both knowledge, skills and attitudes.
This yields a rich integrated knowledge base that allows for transfer of learning, that is, the ability to perform new, yet unfamiliar tasks.
Learning tasks support an inductive learning process, where students learn from concrete experiences.
E-lecture

5. Variability of Learning Tasks
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1 Design Learning Tasks 2/3
4 Design Supportive
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7 Design Procedural
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10 Design Part-
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2 Develop Assessment Instruments
3 Sequence Learning Tasks
5 Analyze Cognitive Strategies
6 Analyze Mental Models
8 Analyze Cognitive Rules
9 Analyze Prerequisite Knowledge
Step 1
Variability of Learning Tasks
In the schema, variability is indicated by the small triangles at different positions in the learning tasks. In order to promote a process of inductive learning, learning tasks should be different from each other on all dimensions on which real-life or professional tasks are also different from each other. This is critical to reaching transfer of learning.
First, learning tasks are different from each other on surface features. Despite differences in surface features, tasks are performed in the same fashion. Compare the butterflies in the picture. Although they differ in color, shape and size they are all called butterflies.
Second, learning tasks should be different from each other on structural features. Tasks that differ from each other on structural features should be performed in different ways.
The learning tasks in an educational program must be different from each other on all dimensions on which real-life tasks are also different from each other. Thus, the whole set of learning tasks in an educational program must be representative for the tasks you encounter in the real world.
In the figure, this is indicated by the small triangles that are at a different place in each learning task.
Variability refers to both surface features and structural features.
If learning tasks differ from each other on surface features, tasks look different but can be performed in the same way.
If learning tasks differ from each other on structural features, they may look similar but they need to be performed in another way.
Together, variability over surface and structure features help learners to construct cognitive schemas that allow for transfer or learning.
E-lecture

6. Support and Guidance for Learning Tasks
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1 Design Learning Tasks 3/3
4 Design Supportive
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7 Design Procedural
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10 Design Part-
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2 Develop Assessment Instruments
3 Sequence Learning Tasks
5 Analyze Cognitive Strategies
6 Analyze Mental Models
8 Analyze Cognitive Rules
9 Analyze Prerequisite Knowledge
Step 1
Support and Guidance for Learning Tasks
In the schema, support and guidance are indicated by the filling of the circles. Given support and guidance gradually decrease during the educational program (this is called scaffolding). Thanks to the availability of support and guidance, learners are able to perform tasks that would otherwise be out of their reach. The tasks are thus in their ‘zone of proximal development’ and so optimally promote learning.
Support is built into the learning tasks, comparable with the training wheels on a child’s bike as shown in the picture. A common way to decrease support is first have the learners study worked-out solutions, then let them complete partially given solutions, and finally have them solve conventional problems for which they have to come up with the whole solution.
Guidance is typically provided by a teacher, process worksheet or computer. Compare this to a parent who is running along with the child on a bike and shouting directions.
The learning tasks in an educational program typically contain support and guidance, which gradually desceases in a process of scaffolding.
In the figure, this is indicated by the filling of the circles, which decreases over time.
Scaffolding is critical to learning, because learners learn most when they are working on challenging tasks that are actually a bit too difficult for them. But thanks to the fact that they are supported and guided they are able to complete the tasks.
Support is built into the learning tasks. For example, it is given by worked-out examples or a partially worked-out examples that must be completed by the learner.
Guidance is often given by a teacher. It guides the learner through the process of performing the task.
E-lecture

7. Develop Assessment Instruments
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1 Design Learning Tasks
4 Design Supportive
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7 Design Procedural
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10 Design Part-
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2 Develop Assessment Instruments 1/3
3 Sequence Learning Tasks
5 Analyze Cognitive Strategies
6 Analyze Mental Models
8 Analyze Cognitive Rules
9 Analyze Prerequisite Knowledge
Step 2
Develop Assessment Instruments
In order to provide feedback to students and to assess them, the quality of their performance on learning tasks needs to be measured. The development of an assessment instrument starts with the specification of a skills hierarchy. In such a hierarchy, the complex skill or professional competency that is taught is at the top and so-called constituent skills are lower in the hierarchy:
All constituent skills in the hierarchy can be categorized as:
Non-routine skills. These skills involve problem solving, reasoning or decision making and require the presentation of supportive information. This is the default categorization.
Routine skills. Skills lower in the hierarchy may pertain to routine behaviors that are consistent across learning tasks. They require the presentation of procedural information (green in the Figure).
Routine to-be-automated skills. Some critical skills may need to become fully automated. They require not only procedural information but also additional part-task practice (red in the Figure).
Step 2 is the development of assessment instruments, which make it possible to measure the quality of students’ performance.
It starts with the specification of a so-called learning hierarchy, in which all aspects of performing the tasks are hierarchically ordered.
These aspects or constituent skills are then categorized as:
First, non routine skills, which require problem solving, reasoning and decision making. These aspects require the presentation of supportive information.
Scond, toutine skills, which are always performed in the same way. These aspects require the presentation of procedural information.
And third, routine to-be-automated skills. These are typically highly critical aspects that need to become fully automated. These aspects require not only the presentation of procedural information but also part-task practice.
E-lecture

8. Performance Objectives
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4 Design Supportive
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2 Develop Assessment Instruments 2/3
3 Sequence Learning Tasks
5 Analyze Cognitive Strategies
6 Analyze Mental Models
8 Analyze Cognitive Rules
9 Analyze Prerequisite Knowledge
Step 2
Performance Objectives
Performance objectives can be formulated for all constituent skills in the skills hierarchy. Well-formulated performance objectives contain:
An action verb that clearly states what learners will be able to do after the educational program.
Conditions under which performance takes place.
Tools and objects that must be used.
Standards for acceptable performance.
The standards are especially important for the development of an assessment instrument. Three types of standards are:
Criteria. These are minimum requirements in terms of speed, accurary, tolerances, wastes etc.
Values. These indicate that skills must be performed according to particular rules, regulations, conventions etc.
Attitudes. These indicate that task performers must exhibit particular attitudes when performing the skills (e.g., ”with a smile on your face”)
When we develop an assessment instrument, performance objectives can be formulated for all non-routine, routine, and routine to-be-automated aspects.
Well-formulated performance objectives contain an action verb stating what needs to be done; conditions under which performance takes place; tools and objects that must be used, and, last but not least, standards for acceptable performance.
The standards are the most important element for doing assessments. There are three types of standards:
Criteria state hard minimum requirements in terms of speed, accuracy and so on.
Values indicate that the aspect must be performed according to particular rules, conventions or regulations.
And attitudes indicate that a particular attitude must be shown, for example, “with a smile on your face”
E-lecture

9. Scoring Rubrics E-lecture Step 2
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1 Design Learning Tasks
4 Design Supportive
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7 Design Procedural
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10 Design Part-
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2 Develop Assessment Instruments 3/3
3 Sequence Learning Tasks
5 Analyze Cognitive Strategies
6 Analyze Mental Models
8 Analyze Cognitive Rules
9 Analyze Prerequisite Knowledge
Step 2
Scoring Rubrics
Scoring rubrics can be developed for all standards as specified in the performance objectives. Together, these scoring rubrics make up an assessment instrument that makes it possible to score the learner’s performance on all relevant aspects.
In a development portfolio, the same assessment instrument is used to monitor a learner’s performance over learning tasks, that is, over time. Not all tasks need to be assessed on all different aspects, but over a series of tasks enough information should be gathered to assess a learner on both separate aspects of performance (vertical assessment) and overall task performance (horizontal assessment).
Assessment instrument for driving a car
Scale of values
Narrative report
Anticipating on other traffic
Value: keep all traffic regulations into account
None – most – all …
Attitude: give time and space to other traffic
Never (1) – Always (5)
Negotiating a curve
Criterion: stay on own lane
Yes - No
Criterion: give right of way to straight traffic
Attitude: Drive slowly and avoid risk
Insufficient (1) – Excellent (5)
Recover from slip on icy road
Criterion: Immediately apply opposite lock
And so further
For all standards, thus for criteria, values and attitudes, scoring rubrics can be developed.
These scoring rubrics make it possible to express a score or a verbal report for each aspect of performance.
All standards in combination with all scoring rubrics make up an assessment instrument that makes it possible to score the learners’ performance on all relevant aspects.
In educational programs based on the four components, the assessment instrument typically takes the form of an electronic development portfolio.
Such a development portfolio makes it possible to monitor the progress that learners make over learning tasks.
E-lecture

10. Sequence Learning Tasks
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1 Design Learning Tasks
4 Design Supportive
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7 Design Procedural
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10 Design Part-
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2 Develop Assessment Instruments
3 Sequence Learning Tasks 1/2
5 Analyze Cognitive Strategies
6 Analyze Mental Models
8 Analyze Cognitive Rules
9 Analyze Prerequisite Knowledge
Step 3
Sequence Learning Tasks
For educational programs of longer duration, learning tasks typically need to be sequenced from simple to complex. Then, task classes are defined at increasing levels of complexity. In the schema, task classes are indicated by dotted rectangles around a set of equally complex learning tasks.
In the same task class, learning tasks are more or less equally complex, show high variability, and gradually decrease available support and guidance. Only in subsequent task classes, learners practice on more complex tasks. This is called the spiral curriculum.
Note that even learning tasks in the first task class should be representative for the simplest tasks one might encounter in the real world or in the profession.
Step 3 is the sequencing of learning tasks.
In programs of longer duration, it is often necessary to sequence learning tasks from simple to complex.
In the figure, this is indicated by the dotted lines indicating sets of equally complex learning tasks or task classes.
Learners begin to work on simple learning tasks, and gradually work on more and more complex learning tasks.
Yet, on each level of difficulty we see scaffolding of support and guidance; thus, learners receive a lot of guidance when they start to work on more complex tasks.
This is also called the spiral curriculum.
E-lecture

11. Simplifying Conditions
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1 Design Learning Tasks
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2 Develop Assessment Instruments
3 Sequence Learning Tasks 2/2
5 Analyze Cognitive Strategies
6 Analyze Mental Models
8 Analyze Cognitive Rules
9 Analyze Prerequisite Knowledge
Step 3
Simplifying Conditions
The Ten Steps describe several methods for sequencing learning tasks. The most popular method is ‘simplifying conditions’’. This method consists of the following steps:
Identify the different conditions under which a task may be performed
For driving a car, these might be brand of the car, type of gear, weather conditions, time of day, traffic situation and so forth
Identify those conditions that affect the complexity of the task
These might be type of gear, weather conditions and traffic situation
Provide values to the conditions that affect the complexity of the task
For type of gear, these might be: automatic, hand-changed. For weather conditions: sunny, rainy, icy. For traffic situation: country side, city.
Define the first task class using the most simple conditions and define the final task class using the the most complex conditions
First task class: Driving an automatic car in sunny weather in the country side
Final task class: Driving a hand-changed car in icy weather in a big city
Add task classes in between in such a way that there is a gradual increase of complexity from one task class to the next task class
For example, a task class in-between might be driving a hand-changed car in rainy weather in the country side
One way to sequence learning tasks from simple to complex is the simplifying conditions approach.
Then, you first identify the conditions that affect the complexity of a task. For example, simplifying conditions for the task of driving a car might be type of gear, weather conditions and traffic situation.
Then, simple tasks refer to driving an automatic car in sunny weather and with very little traffic on the road.
Complex tasks refer to driving a hand-changed care in bad weather and in an unknown city with heavy traffic.
Of course, additional complexity levels might be added in between.
E-lecture

12. Design Supportive Information
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10 Design Part-
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2 Develop Assessment Instruments
3 Sequence Learning Tasks
5 Analyze Cognitive Strategies
6 Analyze Mental Models
8 Analyze Cognitive Rules
9 Analyze Prerequisite Knowledge
Step 4
Design Supportive Information
In the schema above for an educational program, supportive information is indicated by the L-shaped figures. Supportive information helps learners to work on non-routine aspects of learning tasks (problem solving, reasoning, decision making). It is often presented in books, lectures and multimedia.
Supportive information is connected to task classes because it allows learners to perform more or less equally complex tasks. For learning tasks at higher levels of complexity (i.e., subsequent task classes), learners need additional supportive information or more elaborated supportive information that allows them to work on more complex tasks.
Supportive information should always be presented in such a way that learners connect the new information to the things they already know. The main underlying learning process is elaboration.
Step 4 is the design of supportive information, which is often presented in books, lectures or multimedia.
In the figure, this is indicated by the red L-shaped figures.
This information is provided to learners before or during their work on a set of equally complex learning tasks.
It helps them to perform the non-routine aspects of learning tasks, that deal with problem solving, reasoning and decision making.
For more complex levels of complexity, learners need more, or more elaborated supportive information.
The main learning process here is elaboration: learners must connect the new information to the things they already know.
E-lecture

13. Three Types of Supportive Information
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2 Develop Assessment Instruments
3 Sequence Learning Tasks
5 Analyze Cognitive Strategies
6 Analyze Mental Models
8 Analyze Cognitive Rules
9 Analyze Prerequisite Knowledge
Step 4
Three Types of Supportive Information
Domain models. They describe how the learning domain is organized. They help learners to develop mental models of the learning domain. A further distinction can be made between:
Conceptual models, describing how things are named in a domain.
Structural models, describing how things are built in a domain.
Causal models, describing how things are working in a domain.
Systematic approaches to problem solving (SAPs). They describe how a task performer’s actions in the domain should be organized. They help learners to develop cognitive strategies for working in the domain. SAPs are heuristic and typically describe the phases a task performer goes through as well as the rules-of-thumb that may help to successfully complete each of the phases.
Cognitive feedback. This type of feedback helps the learner to critically compare and contrast the quality of own mental models with the mental models of experts or peers, and to compare and contrast the quality of own cognitive strategies with the cognitive strategies of experts or peers. Reflection is critical in this process.
There are three types of supportive information.
First, domain models help learners to develop mental models of a domain. These may be conceptual models, that describe how things are named in a domain, structural models, that describe how things are organized in a domain, and causal models, that describe how things work in a domain.
Second, systematic approaches to problem solving help learners to develop cognitive strategies in a domain. They describe how the actions of a task performer are organized in the domain. These can be phases to go through and rules of thumb that may help to complete each phase.
Third, cognitive feedback invites the learner to critically compare his or her own mental models and cognitive strategies with those of experts or other learners. Here, reflection is a critical process.
E-lecture

14. Analyze Cognitive Strategies
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2 Develop Assessment Instruments
3 Sequence Learning Tasks
5 Analyze Cognitive Strategies 1/1
6 Analyze Mental Models
8 Analyze Cognitive Rules
9 Analyze Prerequisite Knowledge
Step 5
Analyze Cognitive Strategies
Systematic approaches to problem solving (SAPs) describe how a learner’s actions in the domain should be organized. Often, these approaches are documented in text books or other documentation. Then, there is no need to perform this step.
But if SAPs are not yet available in existing materials, you may need to analyze the cognitive strategies underlying the SAPs. This is typically done by observing and interviewing expert task performers. SAPs are typically described by:
Specifying phases. These are the phases to go through in a systematic approach to performing the task. The Ten Steps itself provide an example of such phases. They also make clear that not always all phases are relevant, and that jumps between phases are not uncommon.
Identifying rules-of-thumb. For each of the phases, rules-of-thumb or heuristics are identified that experts use to successfully complete each phase. For example, rules-of-thumb for Step 1, design learning tasks, are: “if you design learning tasks, then start from real-life or professional tasks”, and “if you design learning tasks, then make sure that the tasks are different from each other on all dimensions on which tasks in the real world are also different from each other”.
Step 5 is the analysis of cognitive strategies.
This step is only necessary when cognitive strategies have not been documented in text books or other instructional materials.
If necessary, cognitive strategies are analyzed as systematic approaches to problem solving or SAPs. Such a systematic approach contains:
A description of all the phases a task performer goes through, and
A description of the heuristics or rules-of-thumb that may help to complete each phase.
E-lecture

15. Analyze Mental Models E-lecture Step 6
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3 Sequence Learning Tasks
5 Analyze Cognitive Strategies
6 Analyze Mental Models 1/1
8 Analyze Cognitive Rules
9 Analyze Prerequisite Knowledge
Step 6
Analyze Mental Models
Domain Models describe how a learning domain is organized. Usually, domain models (teachers often call this “the theory”) are well documented in text and study books or other documentation. Then, there is no need to perform this step.
But if domains models are not yet available in existing materials, you may need to analyze the mental models underlying the domain models. This is typically done by observing and interviewing expert task performers.
Conceptual model
Structural model
Causal model
Step 6 is the analysis of mental models.
This step is only necessary when mental models are not described in textbooks or other instructional materials.
If necessary, mental models are analysed as
Conceptual models, that describe how concepts are related to each other in the domain, or
Structural models, that describe how things are organized in a domain, or
Causal models, that describe how processes work in a domain.
These three types can also be combined in more complex mental models.
E-lecture

16. Design Procedural Information
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2 Develop Assessment Instruments
3 Sequence Learning Tasks
5 Analyze Cognitive Strategies
6 Analyze Mental Models
8 Analyze Cognitive Rules
9 Analyze Prerequisite Knowledge
Step 7
Design Procedural Information
In the schema above, procedural information is indicated by the upward pointing arrows. Procedural information helps learners perform routine aspects of learning tasks which are consistent from task to task (e.g., reading displays, operating a keyboard, doing basic arithmetic). It is often presented by an instructor (acting as an ‘assistant-looking-over-your-shoulder’ – ALOYS), quick-reference guide or mobile application.
Procedural information is connected to individual learning tasks. It is best presented just-in-time, precisely when learners need it. It fades away for subsequent learning tasks.
Procedural information should be presented in such a way that learners transform the new information into cognitive rules. The main underlying learning process is knowledge compilation.
Step 7 is the design of procedural information, which is often presented by an instructor, in a manual or in quick reference guide.
In the figure, this is indicated by the red upward pointing arrows.
This information is provided to learners just in time, precisely when they need it during their work on the learning tasks. It is also called how-to instruction.
It helps them to perform the routine aspects of learning tasks, which are the same each time the task is performed.
The main learning process here is knowledge compilation: learners transform the information into cognitive rules.
E-lecture

17. Two Types of Procedural Information
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2 Develop Assessment Instruments
3 Sequence Learning Tasks
5 Analyze Cognitive Strategies
6 Analyze Mental Models
8 Analyze Cognitive Rules
9 Analyze Prerequisite Knowledge
Step 7
Two Types of Procedural Information
Just-in-time information displays. These are how-to instructions telling the learner what to do, precisely while he or she is doing it. They help learners to develop cognitive rules. If how-to instructions contain words or concepts that are not familiar to the learner, explanations are provided. They help learners to develop prerequisite knowledge for correctly using the how-to instructions.
Corrective feedback. This type of feedback points out that an error has been made, helps the learner to recover from the error, and provides a hint on how to continue.
There are two types of procedural information.
First, just-in-time information displays provide how-to instructions, as well as the knowledge that is prerequisite to correctly performing these instructions. For example, if the how-to instruction is to press the on/off-button, it might be necessary to give information on where the on/off button is located.
Second, procedural information relates to corrective feedback. This feedback points out that an error has been made and helps to learner to recover from this error.
Exampe of a JIT information display presenting the routine for changing document orientation in OpenOffice. You see numbered how-to instructions. Unfamiliar concepts are underlined and explained after clicking on them.
E-lecture

18. Analyze Cognitive Rules
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2 Develop Assessment Instruments
3 Sequence Learning Tasks
5 Analyze Cognitive Strategies
6 Analyze Mental Models
8 Analyze Cognitive Rules 1/1
9 Analyze Prerequisite Knowledge
Step 8
Analyze Cognitive Rules
just-in-time information displays tell the learner what to do under particular conditions and how to do it. Often, they are documented in quick reference guides, manuals or other documentation. Then, there is no need to perform this step.
But if just-in-time information displays are not yet available, you may need to analyze the cognitive rules underlying them. This is typically done by observing expert task performers. Cognitive rules often take the form of ‘IF condition THEN action’. For example:
IF you want to power on the machine THEN push the power button
All routines can be specified by a set of IF-THEN rules in a rule-based analysis. If the steps of the routine show a temporal order, information-processing analysis provides an alternative. Then, actions and decisions are depicted in a flow-chart (the Figure provides a flow-chart for adding two-digit numbers).
In contrast to SAPs, cognitive rules are not heuristic but algorithmic. If the rules are correctly performed, they warrant that the right answer is reached.
Step 8 is the analysis of cognitive rules.
This step is only necessary when cognitive rules or procedures have not been documented in manuals or other instructional materials.
If necessary, cognitive rules are analyzed as IF-THEN rules, or, if the steps of the routine show a temporal order, in a flow-chart.
Such a flow chart shows all actions and decisions that must be made by the learner to correctly perform the routine aspects of the task.
In contrast to cognitive strategies, which are heuristic, cognitive rules or flow charts are algorithmic: they always produce the correct answer.
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19. Analyze Prerequisite Knowledge
Start
COMPONENT 1
COMPONENT 2
COMPONENT 3
COMPONENT 4
End
1 Design Learning Tasks
4 Design Supportive
Information
7 Design Procedural
Information
10 Design Part-
Task Practice
2 Develop Assessment Instruments
3 Sequence Learning Tasks
5 Analyze Cognitive Strategies
6 Analyze Mental Models
8 Analyze Cognitive Rules
9 Analyze Prerequisite Knowledge 1/1
Step 9
Analyze Prerequisite Knowledge
Prerequisite knowledge is conditional to the correct use of cognitive rules. Usually, it is specified in existing just-in-time information displays, together with IF-THEN rules or other algorithms. Then, there is no need to perform this step.
But if just-in-time information displays are not yet available, you may need to analyze the prerequisite knowledge along with the cognitive rules. This process is straightforward. You take a look at the IF-THEN rules or the algorithms and if they contain concepts or words that are not familiar for the learners, these should be explained.
IF you want to power on the machine
THEN push the power button
The power button is located at the back of the machine,
and looks like this: f
Step 9 is the analysis of prerequisite knowledge.
This step is only necessary when this knowledge is not described in manuals or other instructional materials.
If necessary, prerequisite knowledge is analyzed by carefully looking at cognitive rules or flow-charts that result from step 8.
If learners need knowledge for correctly performing these cognitive rules, or for correctly applying the flowchart, this knowledge needs to be included in just-in-time information displays.
One of two or more vertical sections of typed lines lying side by side
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20. Design Part-Task Practice
Start
COMPONENT 1
COMPONENT 2
COMPONENT 3
COMPONENT 4
End
1 Design Learning Tasks
4 Design Supportive
Information
7 Design Procedural
Information
10 Design Part-
Task Practice 1/2
2 Develop Assessment Instruments
3 Sequence Learning Tasks
5 Analyze Cognitive Strategies
6 Analyze Mental Models
8 Analyze Cognitive Rules
9 Analyze Prerequisite Knowledge
Step 10
Design Part-Task Practice
In the schema above, part-task practice is indicated by the series of small circles. It helps learners to automate selected routine aspects of learning tasks, such as when practicing musical scales, drilling multiplication tables or training resuscitation skills.
Routine aspects are also part of learning tasks and supported through the presentation of procedural information. Often, this provides sufficient practice to reach the objectives. Additional part-task practice is only necessary for critical routine aspects that need to be developed to a very high level of automaticity!
Part-task practice provides ample repetition and immediate corrective feedback. The underlying learning process is strengthening.
Step 10 is the design of part-task practice.
In the figure, it is indicated by the red small circles.
This step is only necessary when particular routine aspects of the task need to be fully automated by the learners. For example, you learnto play a musical instrument by playing musical pieces as learning tasks but, in addition, playing the musical scales as part-task practice helps you to develop routine skills.
Part-task practice provides repetitive practice with immediate corrective feedback.
The main learning process is strengthening, learners strengthen cognitive rules each time they correctly perform the routine aspect of the task.
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21. Overlearning E-lecture Step 10
Start
COMPONENT 1
COMPONENT 2
COMPONENT 3
COMPONENT 4
End
1 Design Learning Tasks
4 Design Supportive
Information
7 Design Procedural
Information
10 Design Part-
Task Practice 2/2
2 Develop Assessment Instruments
3 Sequence Learning Tasks
5 Analyze Cognitive Strategies
6 Analyze Mental Models
8 Analyze Cognitive Rules
9 Analyze Prerequisite Knowledge
Step 10
Overlearning
In order to reach full automaticity through ‘overlearning’, part-task practice often proceeds through three phases:
First train the routine to-be-automated skill to an acceptable level of automaticity;
then train it under moderate speed stress, and
finally train it under time-sharing conditions, for example, in the context of the whole task.
Part-task practice is best intermixed with the learning tasks. When part-task practice is provided for more than one constituent skill, it is best intermixed with other part-task practice as well as the learning tasks. This is called intermix training and helps the learners integrate all the things they learn.
Part-task practice often applies overlearning.
Then, three phases in part task practice are distinghuished:
first, the routine aspects are trained until an acceptable level of accurary is reached,
Second, the routine aspects are trained until also an acceptable level of speed is reached, and
Finally, the routine aspects are trained in combination with other task aspects, that is, under time sharing conditions.
To support the construction of a rich knowledge based, part-task practice is best intermixed with the work on learning tasks. This is called intermix training.
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22. Complex Learning, Four Components, and Media
Start
COMPONENT 1
COMPONENT 2
COMPONENT 3
COMPONENT 4
End 1/3
1 Design Learning Tasks
4 Design Supportive
Information
7 Design Procedural
Information
10 Design Part-
Task Practice
2 Develop Assessment Instruments
3 Sequence Learning Tasks
5 Analyze Cognitive Strategies
6 Analyze Mental Models
8 Analyze Cognitive Rules
9 Analyze Prerequisite Knowledge
Complex Learning, Four Components, and Media
The four components are based on different learning processes: inductive learning, elaboration, knowledge compilation, and strengthening. The term complex learning refers to the simultaneous occurence of these processes. Inductive learning and elaboration are schema-construction processes, knowledge compilation and strengthening are schema-automation processes.
Different learning processes and thus different components require different types of media. The Table lists some suitable media for each component, split up between traditional media and new media.
Learning Processes
Components
Traditional Media
New Media
Schema Construction
Inductive learning
Learning Tasks
Real task environments, role play, project groups, problem-based learning groups
Computer-simulated task environments, high-fidelity simulators, educational games
Elaboration
Supportive Information
Textbooks, lectures, realia
Hypermedia, multimedia, discovery worlds, Internet, social media
Schema Automation
Knowledge Compilation
Procedural Information
Assistant-looking-over-your-shoulder, job aids, learning aids, quick reference guides, manuals
Mobile technologies, on-line help systems, electronic performance support systems, augmented reality
Strengthening
Part-Task Practice
Paper-and-pencil exercises, skills laboratory, practicals, real task environments
Drill-and-practice computer-based training, part-task trainers
The four components are connected to four different learning processes, which make use of four different types of media.
- Learning tasks promote inductive learning. They require learners work in real or simulated task environments.
- Supportive information promotes elaboration. It requires the deep study of information that is then connected to what learners already know.
- Procedural information promotes knowledge compilation. It requires the just-in-time presentation of information in manuals or with mobile technologies.
- Part-task practice promotes strengthening. It requires repetitive practice, for example with drill-and-practice computer programs.
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23. The Final Educational Blueprint
Start
COMPONENT 1
COMPONENT 2
COMPONENT 3
COMPONENT 4
End 2/3
1 Design Learning Tasks
4 Design Supportive
Information
7 Design Procedural
Information
10 Design Part-
Task Practice
2 Develop Assessment Instruments
3 Sequence Learning Tasks
5 Analyze Cognitive Strategies
6 Analyze Mental Models
8 Analyze Cognitive Rules
9 Analyze Prerequisite Knowledge
The Final Educational Blueprint
Application of the Ten Steps results in a detailed blueprint for the educational program which is ready for production. The blueprint specifies learning tasks which are typically organized in task classes; supportive information for each task class; procedural information for each learning task, and, when applicable, part-task practice for selected routine aspects. It may also specify suitable media for each component. The blueprint has the following basic format:
TASK CLASS 1
Supportive Information
Learning Task 1.1
Procedural Information
Learning Task 1.2
Part-Task Practice
Learning Task 1.3
TASK CLASS 2
Learning Task 2.1
Learning Task 2.2
Learning Task 2.3
TASK CLASS 3
Learning Task 3.1
And so forth
This table shows the structure of an educational blueprint based on the four components.
In green are the learning tasks. They are sequence from simple to complex in task classes.
In violet is the supportive information. It is connected to task classes, that is, equally complex sets of learning tasks.
In blue is procedural information. It is connected to individual learning tasks and presented just in time.
In purple is part-task practice. It starts after the routine aspect that is practiced has been introduced in a whole learning task, so that the learner understands how part-task practice helps to improve whole-task performance. Then, it is best intermixed with the work on the learning tasks.
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24. The Integrated Curriculum
Start
COMPONENT 1
COMPONENT 2
COMPONENT 3
COMPONENT 4
End 3/3
1 Design Learning Tasks
4 Design Supportive
Information
7 Design Procedural
Information
10 Design Part-
Task Practice
2 Develop Assessment Instruments
3 Sequence Learning Tasks
5 Analyze Cognitive Strategies
6 Analyze Mental Models
8 Analyze Cognitive Rules
9 Analyze Prerequisite Knowledge
The Integrated Curriculum
The Ten Steps yield an integrated educational program that is best compared with the skeleton of a mammal; it is one organic whole. The backbone is formed by the learning tasks and all other components are carefully connected to this backbone where they fit best.
Thanks for studying this tutorial. For more information on the Ten Steps and 4C/ID, see or read the book Ten Steps to Complex Learning.
You can see a blueprint based on the four components as a skeleton.
First, a backbone is constructed form the learning tasks.
Then, the other three components, supportive information, procedural information and part-task practice are connected to this backbone precisely where they best support the learners’’work on the learning tasks.
This yields an integrated curriculum, in which all components are clearly connected to each other.
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