1. A short Computer History

2. Computer System as Multilevel Machine
Problem-oriented language level
Translation (compiler)
Level 4
Assembly language level
Translation (assembler)
Level 3
Operating system machine level
Partial interpretation means, that some OS instructions are interpretet, while ISA commands are simply forwarded to the ISA level.
Partial interpretation (operating system)
Level 2
Instruction set architecture level
Interpretation (microprogram) or direct execution
Level 1
Microarchitecture level
Hardware
Level 0
Digital logic level
Tanenbaum: Computer Architecture

3. Evolution of Multilevel Machines
Clear distinction between hardware and software
Hardware implements machine instructions
Software uses those machine instructions for programming
The invention of microprogramming
1951 by Maurice Wilkes, University of Cambridge
Simplified hardware  reduced tube count and enhanced reliability.
By 1970 using a microprogram was dominant

4. Evolution of Multilevel Machines
In the early days, people:
reserved the computer for a block of time
brought in their FORTRAN program as a desk of punched cards
took the FORTRAN compiler out of a cabinet
inserted first the compiler and then the program
Inserted the program again for a second pass of the compiler
the compiler punched out the machine program.
put in the machine program …
This procedure was normal in many compute centers for years.
In 1960 the operators job was automated
If there was an error, they looked at the console lights and used the console switches. Otherwise they printed the core content and analyzed it at home.

5. The Evolution of Multilevel Machines
The invention of the operating system
Operating system was kept in memory
It read and executed jobs consisting of the Fortran code and the data cards for execution.
Interspersed with OS commands like compile and execute
One of the first widespread operating systems was FMS (FORTRAN Monitor System)
Additions, e.g., IO, were called operating system macros or supervisor calls (today system calls)
1960 the timesharing system was developed at MIT
Multiple users could access the machine simultaneously from remote terminals

6. Computer Generations Zeroth Generation -1945: Mechanical Computers
First Generation : Vacuum Tubes
Second Generation : Transistors
Third Generation – 1980: Integrated Circuits
Fourth Generation - …: Very Large Scale Integration
Fifth Generation: The invisible computer

7. The Zeroth Generation – Mechanical Computers (1642 – 1945)
Blaise Pascal
built 1642 a computer to help his father in tax collection
Gottfried Leibniz
built 1670 a mechanical machine that could also multiply and divide.
Gottfried Leibniz entwickelte das binäre Zahlensystem.

8. The Zeroth Generation – Mechanical Computers (1642 – 1945)
Charles Babbage ( )
Built 1822 the difference engine to compute tables for navy navigation. Result was engraved in a copper plate (write-once medium)
Built 1846 the analytical machine consisting of store (for variables), the mill (processing unit), input and output section. It could execute different programs on punched cards instead of only one (difference engine).
The programs were developed by Ada Augusta Lovelace.
Babbage
difference enginge arbeitete mit finiten Differenzen auf der Basis von Polynomen
analytical machine: store: 100 words with 50 decimal digits, mill could read store and store back results.

9. The Zeroth Generation Konrad Zuse (late 1930) Howard Aiken (1944)
1938: Z1 mechanical engine, binary system, floating point arithmetic, programs on punched tape
1941: Z3 machine based on electromagnetic relays, binary arithmetic
Work lost in the war.
Howard Aiken (1944)
Built a relay-based machine with 72 words of 23 decimal digits, and an instruction time of 6 sec.
His work was based on Babbage's work he found in the library.

10. The First Generation – Vacuum Tubes (1945–1955)
British intelligence (1944)
Built COLOSSUS the world first electronic digital computer
Alan Turing helped in the design
Designed to decode German messages
Jon Mauchley and Presper Eckert (1946)
Built ENIAC with tubes, relays. It weighed 30 tons and consumed 140 kilowatt.
Decimal arithmetic, each digit represented by 10 tubes
Grant by the army.
Maurice Wilkes (1946)
EDSAC, binary arithmetic
First stored program computer
Developed in UK

11. The First Generation – Vacuum Tubes (1945–1955)
John von Neumann
Designed the von Neumann Architecture in 1945 for EDVAC
Built 1952 the IAS machine where program and data were in the same memory.
Parallel addition
It used binary arithmetic.

12. The Second Generation – Transistors (1955–1965)
Transistor was invented at Bell Labs in 1948
Within 10 years vacuum tube computers were obsolete
The first minicomputer PDP1 was built by DEC in 1961.
It cost $ compared to millions for the twice as fast transistorized computer of IBM, the IBM 7090.
CDC introduced CDC 6600
It was 10 times faster than IBM 7090.
The CPU had multiple functional units that could run in parallel.
It also had smaller computers inside to do IO etc.
The designer was Seymour Cray

13. The Third Generation – Integrated Circuits (1965–1980)
Integrated circuits were co-invented by Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce in 1958
Jack Kilby demonstrated it half a year before Noyce on September 12th
@ Texas Instruments
Got Nobel Prize in physics in 2000
Germanium based
Demonstrated continuous sine wave
Rober Noyce
@ Fairchild Seminconductors (Co-Founder)
Silicon based
1968 he and Gordon Moore founded Intel

14. The Third Generation – Integrated Circuits (1965–1980)
IBM build the System/360
It was the first machine with multiprogramming for better CPU utilization.
It could emulate other machines, e.g., the IBM 7094, via special microcode.
It had a huge address space of 224 bytes (16 MB) which was sufficient until mid 1980s
Key features of lasting impact: 8bit byte, byte addressable memory, 32 bit word, two’s complement, EBCDIC character set
DEC developed the PDP-11

15. The Third Generation – Integrated Circuits (1965–1980)
Xerox designed the Alto I
1973
Palo Alto Research Center
First computer with a graphical interface.
Birth of
the mouse
WYSIWYG printing
cut-and-paste
Ethernet

16. The Fourth Generation – Very Large Scale Integration (1980-?)
Personal computer started due to price drop
Apple, Commodore, Atari
IBM PC in 1981 based on Intel CPU
In 1984 the Apple Macintosh was the first personal computer with a Graphical User Interface.
Mid 1980s RISC was born
1992 DEC produced the first 64-bit RISC processor, the Alpha processor.

17. The Fifth Generation – Invisible Computers
In 1993 the Apple Newton was the first PDA
Small embedded processors are changing the world
Going towards ubiquitous computing or pervasive computing
ubiquitous: allgegenwärtig
pervasive: durchdringend

18. Milestones in Computer Architecture
Jahr
Bezeichnung
Hersteller
Anmerkungen
1834
Analytical Engine
Babbage
Erster Versuch, einen digitalen Computer zu bauen
1941 Z3
Zuse
Erste funktionierende Relais-Rechenmaschine
1943
COLOSSUS
Britische Regierung
Erster elektronischer Computer
1944
Mark I
Aiken
Erster amerikanischer Universalcomputer
1946
ENIAC I
Eckert/Mauchley
Beginn der modernen Computergeschichte
1949
EDSAC
Wilkes
Erster speicherprogrammierter Computer
1951
Whirlwind I
M.I.T.
Erster Echtzeitcomputer
1952
IAS
Von Neumann
Die meisten heutigen Maschinen weisen dieses Design auf
1960
PDP-1
DEC
Erster Minicomputer (50 Stück verkauft)
1961
1401
IBM
Sehr beliebter Rechner bei kleinen Firmen
1962
7094
Beherrschte Anfang der 60er Jahre die wissenschaftliche Rechenwelt
1963
B5000
Burroughs
Erste für eine Hochsprache entwickelte Maschine
1964
360
Erste als Familie ausgelegte Produktlinie
6600
CDC
Erster wissenschaftlicher Supercomputer
Digital: wert und zeitdiskrete Darstellung im Gegensatz zu analog

19. Milestones in Computer Architecture
1965
PDP‑8
DEC
Erster Minicomputer für den Massenmarkt ( Stück verkauft)
1970
PDP‑11
Vorherrschender Minicomputer der 70er Jahre
1974
8080
Intel
Erster 8-Bit-Universalcomputer auf einem Chip
CRAY-1
Cray
Erster Vektor-Supercomputer
1978
VAX
Erster 32-Bit-Superminicomputer
1981
IBM PC
IBM
Beginn der modernen Personalcomputer-Ära
Osborne-1
Osborne
Erster portabler Computer
1983
Lisa
Apple
Erster Personalcomputer mit grafischer Benutzeroberfläche (GUI)
1985
386
Erster 32-Bit-Vorgänger der Pentium-Linie
MIPS
Erster kommerzielle RISC-Rechner
1987
SPARC
Sun
Erste SPARC-basierte RISC-Workstation
1990
RS6000
Erste superskalare Maschine
1992
Alpha
Erster 64-Bit-Personalcomputer
1993
Newton
Erster Palmtop-Computer

20. Von Neumann Architecture(1946)
Computer consists of 4 units
Memory (programs and data)
Control unit (interprets the program)
Arithmetic unit
I/O unit
The structure is indepent of the problem (programmable)
Program and data are in the same memory
The memory is structured into cells of a fixed length
The program consists of instructions that are executed sequentially.
There can be (conditional) jumps.
The machine is based on binary representation.

21. Predecessors Von-Neumann Computer Mechanical Computer Program control
Ohne Rechenwerk: Rechenhilfen, z.B. Abakus und Rechenschieber (abstraktes Rechnen)
Mit Rechenwerk: tatsächliches mechanisches Rechnen.
Mechanical Computer
Program control
Without compute unit
With compute unit

22. Predecessor of the von Neumann Architecture
1500
Suan Pan (Ostasien) Soroban (Japan) Abakus -
v. Chr
1100
Schickard: Mechanical ADD/SUB Machine
Pascal: “ “ “
Leibniz: Four operations machine
Jaquard: Punched card loom
Babbage:
Analytical Enginge (punched card, programmable system) Decimal representation, never built

23. Punched Cards

24. Computer Exhibition at Deutsches Museum