1. Physiology II PHL 226 Sensory System

2. How does the central nervous system gets information about the environment?

3. Title

6. Information contained in sensory receptor outputs: Duration Intensity Afferent / Efferent nerves!

7. Fig. 38.2 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. olfactory bulb olfactory epithelium nasal cavity olfactory bulb odor molecules olfactory tractneuron a. b. frontal lobe of cerebral hemisphere odor molecules olfactory cilia of olfactory cell olfactory cell supporting cell olfactory epithelium sensory nerve fibers

8. Taste Receptors for taste are modified epithelial cell present in taste buds located on the tongue, roof of the mouth and pharynx Four primary types of taste receptors : sour, salt, sweet and bitter The binding of the receptor to a taste molecule  release of neurotransmitter in a synapse with a neuron Taste impulses travel through nerves to a gustatory nucleus in the medulla oblongata  thalamus  gustatory cortex located in the parietal lobe in the mouth area.

9. Fig. 38.1 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. b. Papillae d. One taste bud epiglottis tonsils taste bud supporting cell microvillitaste cellconnective tissue papillae sensory nerve fibertaste pore a. Tongue c. Taste buds b(All): © Omikron/SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc. 10 µm

10. Hearing Sounds are waves of compressed air traveling through space Organ of hearing and equilibrium is the inner ear

11. Fig. 38.10 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. round window cochlea earlobe vestibule stapes semicircular canals incus malleus Outer ear Middle earInner ear pinna tympanic membrane auditory canal auditory tube cochlear nerve vestibular nerve

12. 1- The sound waves enter the external auditory canal and trigger vibrations of the tympanic membrane 2- The tympanic membrane induces a vibration of the ossicles 3- The last ossicle, the stapes, transmits amplified vibrations to the oval window 4- The vibrations induce waves in the perilymph of the various inner ear chambers 5- The round window absorbs excess energy and prevent wave reverberation 6- The fluid wave is transduced into an electrical signal by the auditory receptors, the organs of Corti located on the basilar membrane

13. 2 µm Cochlea cross section Organ of Corti tectorial membrane hair cell stereocilia cochlear nerve oval window stapes cochlea round window Stereocilia semicircular canals vestibular canal cochlear canal tympanic canal cochlear nerve basilar membrane tympanic canal © P. Motta/SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc. The hair cells of the organ of Corti transduce fluid wave into an electrical signal The energy of the wave causes the basilar and vestibular membrane to move, thus displacing the cilia from the organ of Corti The louder the sound, the more the cilia bend, the stronger the signal The signal travels through Cochlear nerve  nucleus in medulla oblongata  thalamus  auditory cortex in the temporal lobe

14. Equilibrium Ability to detect head position and movement (or acceleration) -Change of speed = linear acceleration (utricle and saccule) -Turning = rotational acceleration (semi-circular canals)

15. Utricle and saccule Sensory cells have cilia extending into a gelatinous material Saccule detects backward- frontward movement Utricle detects changes relative to gravity

16. Figure 10.46a–c

18. Semi-circular canals The receptors in the ampulla are hair cells with cilia extruding into a gelatinous mass (cupula) When the head rotates, the cupula moves  cilia pulled  Neurotranmitters (vestibular nerve  cerebellum …)

19. Vision

20. In order to see an object: 1- the pattern of the object must fall on the vision receptors (rods and cones in the retina)  accommodation 2- the amount of light entering the eye must be regulated (too much light will “bleach out” the signals) 3- the energy from the waves of photons must be transduced into electrical signals 4- The brain must receive and interpret the signals

21. Accommodation It is the process of adjusting the shape of the lens so that the external image fall exactly on the retina

22. Figure 10.25 Accommodation Object is far  the lens flattens Object is near  the lens rounds

23. Accommodation abnormalities Myopia Hyperopia Astigmatism: the cornea is irregular  irregular pattern of vision Presbyopia: stiffening of the lens occurring with aging  increased difficulty with near vision

24. Figure 10.27a–b

25. Figure 10.27c

26. Regulation of the amount of light entering the eye The iris controls the amount of light entering the eye cavities The contraction of radial or circular smooth muscles located within the iris permit changes in the pupil diameter

27. Figure 10.28a

28. Rods – are sensitive to light and black and white – can’t distinguish colours Cones – allow for colour vision cell body cone cell rod cell nucleus inner segment outer segment synaptic endings membrane of disk retinal opsin synaptic vesicles ion channels in plasma membrane light rays membrane of disk Rhodopsin molecule (opsin + retinal) 3 types of cones – red, blue, green – colour blindness usually results from a deficiency in one or more of the cones (red/green colourblindness is common)

29. COLOUR BLINDNESS Colour blindness results when there is a deficiency in one or more of the cone colours (ie red/green deficiency). The patient will have difficulty differentiating between red and green colours and tend to see them all as something in between. Colour blindness is a genetic condition and affects boys much more frequently than girls, because it is a disorder carried on the “X” chromosome. Females are XX and therefore need 2 defective Xs to have colour blindness. If a female has 1 defective X chromosome, they are a carrier. Males have XY, therefore only 1 X chromosome needs to be affected to have colour blindness. Try this simple colour blindness test to see whether or not you have this deficiency.

30. This is the CONTROL