1. Chapter 2 – Science, Matter, Energy and Systems Endeavor to discover how nature works and to use that knowledge to make predictions about what is likely to happen in nature.

2. Science Science is a discipline that attempts to describe the natural world in terms of order. Biology Chemistry Physics Earth Science

3. Inference 1. To conclude from evidence or premises 2. To reason from circumstance; surmise: We can infer that his motive in publishing the diary was less than honorable 3. To lead to as a consequence or conclusion: “Socrates argued that a statue inferred the existence of a sculptor”

4. Scientific method HYPOTHESIS – proposed to explain observed patterns Critical experiments Analysis and conclusions

5. Scientific Methods What is the question to be answered? What relevant facts and data are known? What new data should be collected? After collection, can it be used to make a law? What hypothesis can be invented to explain this? How can it become a theory?

6. Theory and Law Scientific Theory A hypothesis that has been supported by multiple scientists’ experiments in multiple locations A Scientific Law a description of what we find happening in nature over and over again in a certain way

7. Scientific Laws Law of Conservation of Matter Matter can be changed from one form to another, but never created or destroyed. Atomic Theory of Matter All matter is made of atoms which cannot be destroyed, created, or subdivided.

8. Reasoning Inductive Reasoning Uses observations and facts to arrive at hypotheses All mammals breathe oxygen. Deductive Reasoning Uses logic to arrive at a specific conclusion based on a generalization All birds have feathers, Eagles are birds, therefore All eagles have feathers.

9. Frontier and Consensus Science Frontier Science Scientific “breakthroughs” and controversial data that has not been widely tested or accepted String Theory Consensus or Applied Science Consists of data, theories, and laws that are widely accepted by scientists considered experts in the field involved Human Genome Project

10. Models Scientists use models to imitate the system. Mice are used to determine LD 50 Chemists use structural models when investigating a chemical Remember the plum pudding! Mathematical and computer models are able to predict many outcomes

11. Models have Factors Factors represent the variables in a scientific theory The factors that are involved in a theory about why you are late to my class your walking speed interference by your peers the distance from point A to my room

12. A Good Scientist... Always makes observations. Always questions. Always using good scientific practices to record and analyze data. Repeats trials Uses statistics to analyze data Uses safe and accepted practices Uses data to support hypotheses

13. Experiments Variables are what affect processes in the experiment. Controlled experiments have only one variable Experimental group gets the variable Control group does not have the variable Placebo is a harmless pill that resembles the pill being tested. In double blind experiments, neither the patient nor the doctors know who is the control or experiment group.

14. Let’s Enter the New Age of Science Six Sigma (6δ) is an industry wide method of materials and production management Six sigma utilizes International Standards Organization (ISO) guidelines to effectively manage industrial processes. The goal of 6δ is total customer satisfaction through lowering cost, faster and more efficient production, and zero-defect products.

15. 6δ Problem Solving Strategies We are going to apply these principles to the scientific process Knowledge Based Management: taking the questions to ask, the questions to answer and the tools and techniques to answer them.

16. Process Flow Diagram Input Decision Yes Process Output No Observation Hypothesis Experiment Data Conclusion

17. Variables A variable is a source or variance in an experiment and include independent and dependent variables. Independent variable (x-axis): the variable which is changed in an experiment. Dependent variable (y-axis): the variable which is measured in an experiment.

18. Identifying Variables The 6  method of problem solving uses a “fishbone” diagram or a cause-and-effect diagram. The variables are: Man- Environment Machine- Method Measurement- Materials

19. Cause and Effect Diagram ManMachineMeasurement Effect MethodMaterialsEnvironment

20. Measurements In science, data is collected through observations and measurement. A measurement has magnitude, units,and some degree of uncertainty.

21. Units A number by itself means nothing! (unless it is meant to stand along like specific gravity) Scientists use ppm (part per million) to measure pollutant concentration concentration = mass solute per volume of solution!!! ppm means 1 mg per 1000mL (1 mg/L) ppb means 1 ug/L

22. Accuracy Vs Precision Accuracy – measurement agrees with the accepted correct value Precision – measure of reproducibility

23. Adjustments If your data is precise, but not accurate, simply adjust your measurement techniques. If your data is neither precise nor accurate, you will need to adjust the equipment and the procedure.

24. Time Delay Science does not always occur instantaneously. There is often a time delay from the introduction of a variable until observable effects. Short time delay: ice on a stove = melts quickly Long time delay: ice in a refrigerator = melts slowly Name some in the environment!

25. Significance of Numbers Each number of a measurement is significant (has meaning), including the last digit. The last digit is estimated.

26. Significant Figure Rules All non-zero numbers (1-9) are significant. Zeros are significant if they come between two significant figures. Zeros are significant to the right of the decimal IF they follow a significant figure. (0.0000100000) Trailing zeros to the left of the decimal are only significant if there is a decimal.

27. Calculating With Sig Figs When there are multiple functions, complete all functions and determine significant figures at the end. The least number of decimal places or significant figures determines the number in the final answer. Adding/Subtracting: only count decimal places. Multiplication/Division: count significant figures.

28. Example 50.222 + 34.22 x 10.00000 = 3 decimal places + (4 sig figs x 7 sig figs) 50.222 + 342.00000= 392.422 answer should have 4 sig figs with no more than 2 decimal places 392.4 That’s your final answer

29. Long Division and Multiplication Practice dividing and multiplying the following by hand 1520 ÷ 23 70 ÷ 1.35 1.2 x 10 23 ÷ 2.4 x 10 -3 50222 x 233 100000000 x 340000 75002 x 0.00123

30. Scientific Notation Used to express very large or very small numbers Multiplying and dividing factors multiply, add exponents divide subtract exponents

31. Percentages A percentage is a ratio of 100 5% is 0.05 x 100 What is 3.5% of 1,999,220? What percentage of animals is 255 out of 3420?

32. Dimensional Analysis You MUST solve all problems using this format known x conversion factor = answer If you have 2.35 kg of a sample whose density is 1.25 g/mL, how many Liters of sample do you have?

33. Chemistry Review

34. Compound (molecule) What does it matter? Matter Pure Substances Mixtures Element (atom) Homo- geneous Hetero- geneous

35. Laws of Matter Law of Conservation of Matter: matter is neither created nor destroyed, it simply changes form. Law of Definite Proportions: atoms come together in small whole number ratios to form unique chemical compounds.

36. States of Matter Solid: atoms do not move and are close together in a fixed volume and shape. Liquid: atoms move freely within the shape of the container with a fixed volume. Gas: atoms move freely far apart from each other; no fixed volume or shape.

37. Atoms Nucleus made up of Protons (+) and Neutrons (neutral) Atomic Mass Number Electrons (-) arranged in orbitals around the nucleus Atomic Number: number of protons Isotope: same number of protons, different number of neutrons

38. Ions Ion: an atom with a charge Cation: positive ion Anion: negative ion pH: measure of -log 10 [H 3 O + ] measure how acidic or basic (0-14 S.U.)

39. Physical and Chemical A physical property describes a chemical using the five senses. Physical change involves the change in a physical property. A chemical property describes the relative ability of a chemical to react. Chemical change results in a new compound.

40. Matter quality Measure of how useful a matter is for humans based on availability and concentration

41. Some Important elements- composition by weight – only 8 elements make up 98.5% of the Earth’s crust

42. Organic Organic compounds are Carbon based. The backbone of the compound is Carbon with Oxygen, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, etc. at specific locations

43. Organic Compounds with carbon sugar, vitamins, plastics, aspirin

44. Inorganic compounds no carbon,not originating from a living source Earth’s crust – minerals,water water, nitrous oxide, nitric oxide, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, sodium chloride, ammonia

45. Biological Matter Prokaryotes: unicellular, without nuclear membrane Bacteria Eukaryotes: multicelluar organisms with cellular and nuclear membranes algae, fungi, animals, etc.

46. Macromolecules Macromolecules are very large molecules proteins amino acids DNA Genes are collections of nucleotides in a strand of DNA which express physical characteristics; all genes together form a Chromosome

47. Energy capacity to do work and transfer heat Kinetic Energy -energy in action electromagnetic radiation, heat, temperature Potential energy - stored energy that is potentially available

48. Energy sources 97% solar without it earth’s temperature - 240 C 1% - non commercial(wood, dung, crops) + commercial ( burning mineral resources)

49. Energy quality Measure of how useful an energy source is in terms of concentration and ability to perform useful work

50. Electromagnetic Radiation Electromagnetic Radiation is a self- propagating wave that moves through space or matter. Electric and Magnetic components It has properties of waves.

51. Electromagnetic radiation different wave lengths shorter – high energy, disrupts cells with long term exposure

52. Use….radioisotopes Estimate age of rocks and fossils Tracers in pollution detection and medicine Genetic control of insects

53. 1st Law of Energy or 1st Law of Thermodynamics in all physical and chemical changes energy is neither created or destroyed energy input always equal to energy output

54. 2nd Law of Energy or 2nd Law of Thermodynamics when energy is changed from one form to another some of the useful energy is always degraded to lower quality, more dispersed, less useful energy(heat)

55. Nuclear Material An atom will release energy as electromagnetic radiation in order to become stable. A stable nucleus has at least as many or more neutrons as protons. Atoms with a mass #209 or greater are never stable.

56. Nuclear Changes nuclei of certain isotopes spontaneously change (radioisotopes) or made to change into one or more different isotopes Alpha particles – fast moving (2 protons+2neutrons); Beta particles – high speed electrons ; Gamma particles - high energy electromagnetic radiation radioactive decay, nuclear fission, nuclear fusion

57. Nuclear Fission Nuclear fission is the process of splitting atoms. Fissile isotopes are isotopes of an element that can be split through fission. Only certain isotopes of certain elements are fissile. For example, one isotope of uranium, 235 U, is fissile, while another isotope, 238 U, is not.

58. Nuclear Fission certain isotopes (uranium 235) split apart into lighter nuclei when struck by neutrons chain reaction releases energy needs critical mass of fissionable nuclei

59. Nuclear fusion two isotopes (hydrogen) forced together at extremely high temperatures (100 million C) uncontrolled nuclear fusion thermonuclear weapons

60. Nuclear Fusion Nuclear fusion is the joining of two atomic nuclei. It occurs in stars all over the universe, including our Sun, and is what provides the warmth and light we receive. 1 H + 1 H  2 H + positron (ß+) + neutrino (v) 2 H + 1 H  3 He + gamma ray (y) 3 He + 3 He  4 He + 1 H + 1 H

61. Decay Radioactive decay is when unstable isotopes emit particles. There are three main types of radiation: * Alpha radiation * Beta radiation * Gamma radiation

62. Half Life The rate of radioactive decay is related to the energy change that accompanies the transformation, but it is not a direct relationship. The rate of radioactive emissions of a radioactive nuclide is directly proportional to the amount of radioactive material present. The rate of decay of a radioactive nuclide is measured by its half-life.

63. The half-life of a radioactive substance is the time it takes for half of an initial amount of the substance to decay. The half-live is independent of chemical activity, external pressure, and temperature.

64. Half-Life Formula T = half life t = total time elapsed Fraction remaining = 1/2 (t/T) Number of half-life periods = t / T

65. Uranium Uranium is the principle element used in nuclear reactors and in certain types of atomic bombs. The specific isotope used is 235 U. 235 U + 1 neutron  2 neutrons + 92 Kr + 142 Ba + ENERGY 235 U + 1 neutron  2 neutrons + 92 Sr + 140 Xe + ENERGY

66. Chain Reaction When the atom is split, 1 additional neutron is released. If more 235U is present, those 2 neutrons can cause 2 more atoms to split. Each of those atoms releases 1 more neutron bringing the total neutrons to 4. The chain reaction will continue until all the 235U fuel is spent. This is roughly what happens in an atomic bomb. It is called a runaway nuclear reaction.

67. Positron is a positive electron e + Gamma rays are electromagnetic radiation with a lot of power

68. Feedback Loops A feedback loop occurs when an output of a system is fed back as an input Two kinds of feedback loops Positive Negative

69. Positive Feedback A feedback loop in which output of one type acts as input that moves the system in the same direction. The input and output drive the system further toward one extreme or another. Positive feedback will result in exponential (unlimited) growth. Positive feedback is BAD

70. Positive feedback loop Exponential growth of population – more individuals lead to increased number of births

71. Negative Feedback A feedback loop in which the output of one type acts as input that moves the system in the opposite direction. The input and output essentially neutralize each other’s effects and stabilizes the system. A thermostat in a room controls and maintains the temperature. Negative feedback is GOOD

72. Negative feedback loop Temperature regulation in humans – increased temperature leads to decrease in temperature by sweating

73. High Throughput A high throughput economy is one that has a high output. The economy is boosted by a one-way flow of matter/energy Generates a large amount of waste and pollution Energy output is low quality

74. Low Throughput A Low Throughput economy is one that has a balance of input and output. Generates little waste Maximizes energy efficiency Not an economic leader but a environmental leader

75. Recycling and Reuse A Recycling and Reuse economy mimics nature by recycling and re-using matter and energy. an environmentally sustainable economy

76. Pollutants Tying the themes together.

77. Pollutants Remember the definition of pollution? The presence of chemicals at high enough levels to threaten the health of humans and other organisms. The EPA uses a vague definition of pollutant to define environmental “hazard” There are 5 types of pollution that we will focus on.

78. Persistent Persistent pollutants are those that can be detected in the environment for a very long time. Bioaccumulative chemicals that cannot be removed from the body of fish or other animals are stored in fatty tissue; other organisms store the chemicals in their cell wall or other cellular structures. Rachel Carson highlighted DDT.

79. Degradable A degradable pollutant is one that is broken down completely in the environment or reduced to an acceptable level. Just because a pollutant breaks down, the products may be just as harmful!!! DDT degrades into DDE and DDD Dicholorodiphenyltrichloroethylene (DDT) Dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE) Dichlorodiphenyldiphenyldichloroethane (DDD)

80. Biodegradable A biodegradable pollutant is one that can be broken down or neutralized by a living organism. The basis of a septic system is for bacteria to ingest waste including paper products. Biodegradable waste can take as few as several hours or as many as several years to degrade. Still fills up a landfill or a septic system though!

81. Slowly Degradable A pollutant that is slowly degradable takes as long as several decades to breakdown. Some biodegradable plastics such as grocery bags or food wrap, diapers, etc. Cotton and other organic materials sold as consumable products.

82. Non-biodegradable Non-biodegradable refers to those pollutants that cannot be broken down by natural processes. There are some chemical degradation processes available. These wastes are filling up landfills and waste processing plants.

83. Environmental Science has limitations………………. Cannot prove anything absolutely Cannot be totally free of bias Use of statistical tools Huge number of interacting variables

84. Complex systems Time lags – change in a system leads to other changes after a delay – lung cancer Resistance to change – built in resistance – political, economic Synergy-when two or more processes interact so that the combined effect is greater Chaos – unpredictable behavior in a system

85. Synergy and Chaos Synergy occurs when two or more processes interact so the combined effect is greater than the sum of the separate effects Grapefruit and Statins Chaos occurs in a system when there is no pattern and it never repeats itself Noise versus Music

86. Implications for the environment – High waste society

87. Implications for the environment – Low waste society

88. Gaia Hypothesis (1970) James Lovelock and Lynn Marguilis