1. IR 402 – ANALYSIS OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS ______ LECTURE NOTES

2. Historical Evolution of IOs:  Peace of Westphalia 1648  Congress of Vienna 1814 – 1815: 1. Codification of diplomacy 2. Meeting at fixed intervals  Hague Conferences: 1899 and 1907: 1. Discussions of the establishment of a COURT 2. Disarmament

3. Emergence of INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS; Stepping Stones  Hague Conferences of 1899 & 1907  End of the First World War (1919)  Interwar years (1919 – 1939)  Establishment of “League of Nations” 1920  Evolution of “Idealism”  Wilson’s 14 Principles

4. Hague Conferences (1899 & 1907)  In the Hague Conferences, the European states pledged to establish an international mechanism to settle disputes among nations  In order to achieve this end; the Hague Conferences had come to the conclusion that there should be an international TRIBUNAL to solve the problmes among states!  This was the first step in the foundation of International Court; like Permanent Court of International Justice in 1920 which has been replaced by the International Court of Justice in 1945 under the UN System.  For that purpose the headquarter of ICJ is located at Hague/ the Netherlands today!!!

5. End of the WWI and establishment of League of Nations  After the end of the WWI, the victorious powers decided to set up an international organization to avoid any other world war and to maintain peace & security at international level.  In order to cope with this situation, the League of Nations was established which was the first political IGO ever established.

6. FOUNDATION OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS Cornerstones of the League: 1. Collective Security 2. Promotion of international cooperation, peace & security 3. Form of relations among states to be OPEN, LAWFUL, JUST and PEACEABLE.

7. Continue...  Mandate Commission  Organs & Bodies of the League: 1. Assembly 2. Council 3. Court – Permanent Court of International Justice

8. Covenant of the League:  Article 8: recommending the reduction of armaments and the limitation of the private manufacture of armaments  Article 10: Members of the League undertook ‘to respect and preserve as against external aggression to the territorial integrity and existing political independence of all members of the League’  Articles from 12 to 16: Outlined how states should conduct their relations in SETTLING disputes among themselves

9. Continue...  Article 14: Stresses on ARBITRATION, CONCILIATION & MEDIATION == Establishment of PCIJ  Article 18: New treaties were to be registered with and published by the League’s Secretariat  Articles 22 & 23: League members needed to “undertake to secure the just treatment of the inhabitants of territories under their control”

10. Examples:  Britain was a Mandatory Power Ruling Palestine, Jordan & Iraq  France was ruling Syria & Lebanon as mandates

11. Failure of the League:  Why?  Italian occupation of Ethiopia  Soviet Union invasion of Finland  Problems with the Membership  Soviet Union was expelled from the League in 1939

12. Post – 1945 Era:  Cold War Politics – BIPOLARITY  Two Super Powers  Alliances: NATO vs WARSAW Pact  “Iron Curtain”: Division in Western Europe  Establishment of the United Nations (UN)

13. Post – 1945 era:  Bretton Woods Conference: 1. Establishment of Bretton Woods Institutions: IMF, WB and GATT IMF: International Monetary Fund WB: World Bank, IBRD: Inter. Bank for Reconstruction & Development GATT: General Agreements on Tariffs & Trade (WTO today)

14. Other IOs established after 1945:  Non-Alligned Movement Bandung Conference in Indonesia Yugoslavia, Egypt & India  OECD: Organization of Economic Cooperation for Development  Council of Europe  ECSC: European Coal & Steel Community  EEC: European Economic Community

15. IOs: First IOs have ever established  Rhine River Commission 1804  International Telegraphic Union (ITU)  Universal Postal Union (UPU)  League of Nations

16. THE UNITED NATIONS: THE COLLECTIVE SECURITY SYSTEM

17. The United Nations aims, according to article 1 of the UN Charter,  To maintain international peace and security, and to that end: to take effective collective measures for the prevention and removal of threats to the peace, and for the suppression of acts of aggression or other breaches of the peace, and to bring about by peaceful means, and in conformity with the principles of justice and international law, adjustment or settlement of international disputes or situations which might lead to a breach of the peace.

18. Chapter VII in the UN Charter  The legal-constitutional basis of the UN’s collective security ambitions was to be found in Chapter VII of the Charter which dealt with ‘Action with Respect to Threats to the Peace, Breaches of the Peace, and Acts of Aggression’

19. Articles 39, 40, 41, 42 & 43...  The military options were dealt with in article 42 which empowered the Security Council to take such action as necessary ‘to restore international peace and security’ using the ‘air, sea or land forces of Members of the United Nations’.  It is at this point that the similarities between the collective security concepts of the League and the United Nations begin to disappear. The divergence became even more obvious in article 43.  This outlined the nature and extent of members’ commitments.

20.  These made not only acceptance of, but active participation in, military measures a legal obligation on all Charter signatories when the Security Council should require it.  On its call, UN members would be required to provide forces and facilities to enforce decisions against aggressor states.  These forces were to be provided under the terms of prior agreements, but such arrangements would be essentially technical and could not be a means of evading participation.

21. CASE: NATO EXPANSION Theorizing NATO Enlargment from realist, Liberal, Marxist & Feminist Approaches

22. NATO Expansion  Since the end of the Cold War, NATO members have explored a variety of plans to expand NATO eastward.  1997 Madrid Summit  extend invitations to Poland, Hungary and the Czech Republic  2002 Prague Summit  NATO invited Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, Bulgaria, Slovakia, Slovenia and Romania to join the alliance, bringing its formal membership to 26 states.

23. Is NATO Expansion a Good Idea?  REALISTS:  Realists opposed NATO expansion for 4 reasons. 1. The raison d’etre for NATO no longer exists! Thus expansion serves only to facilitate NATO’s inevitable decline. States form alliances in response to a common enemy or threat. The usefullness of an alliance declines when the common enemy or threat no longer exists. According to Mearsheimer; “The absence of a major war in Europe was the result of the bipolar balance of power between the US and the USSR, not NATO”.

24. 2. Viewed from American realists; the expansion of NATO stretches US security commitments so far that they are not credible.

25. THE EUROPEAN UNION Institutions

27. Key Points  Deepening & Widening Policies of the EU  Treaty of Maastricht*  EU enlargement  EU institutions: Parliament, Commission, Council of Ministers  EU membership criteria – the Copenhagen Criteria  EU’s external relations

28. EU Parliament

29.  The European Parliament (EP) is elected by the citizens of the European Union to represent their interests. Its origins go back to the 1950s and the founding treaties, and since 1979 its members have been directly elected by the people they represent.

30.  Elections are held every five years, and every EU citizen is entitled to vote, and to stand as a candidate, wherever they live in the EU.  The latest elections were in June 2009. Parliament thus expresses the democratic will of the Union's citizens (more than 490 million people), and represents their interests in discussions with the other EU institutions.  The present parliament has 736 members from all 27 EU countries.

31. Members of the European Parliament (MEPs)  MEPs do not sit in national blocks, but in seven Europe-wide political groups. Between them, they represent all views on European integration, from the strongly pro-federalist to the openly Eurosceptic.  Jerzy Buzek was elected President of the EP on the 14th of July 2009 and will hold that post for two and a half years (until January 2012).

32. Number of seats per political group  Some Political groups:  Group of the European People's Party (Christian Democrats)  Group of the Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats in the European Parliament  Group of the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe  Confederal Group of the European United Left - Nordic Green Left

33. Location  The European Parliament has three places of work: Brussels (Belgium), Luxembourg and Strasbourg (France).  Luxembourg is home to the administrative offices (the ‘General Secretariat’). Meetings of the whole Parliament, known as ‘plenary sessions’, take place in Strasbourg and sometimes in Brussels. Committee meetings are also held in Brussels.

34. The Council of the EU/ Council of Ministers

35.  The Council is the EU's main decision-making body.  Like the European Parliament, the Council was set up by the founding treaties in the 1950s.  It represents the member states, and its meetings are attended by one minister from each of the EU’s national governments.

36.  Which ministers attend which meeting depends on what subjects are on the agenda.  If, for example, the Council is to discuss environmental issues, the meeting will be attended by the Environment Minister from each EU country and it will be known as the ‘Environment Council’.

37.  The EU’s relations with the rest of the world are dealt with by the ‘General Affairs and External Relations Council’.  But this Council configuration also has wider responsibility for general policy issues, so its meetings are attended by whichever Minister or State Secretary each government chooses.

38. Council’s Tasks  The Council has six key responsibilities:  To pass European laws – jointly with the European Parliament in many policy areas.  To co-ordinate the broad economic policies of the member states.  To conclude international agreements between the EU and other countries or international organisations.

39.  To approve the EU’s budget, jointly with the European Parliament.  To develop the EU’s Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP), based on guidelines set by the European Council.  To co-ordinate co-operation between the national courts and police forces in criminal matters.

40. Decision-making in the European Union  Much EU legislation is adopted jointly by the Council and Parliament.  As a rule, the Council only acts on a proposal from the Commission, and the Commission normally has responsibility for ensuring that EU legislation, once adopted, is correctly applied.

41. Its Tasks  Concluding international agreements  Each year the Council ‘concludes’ (i.e. officially signs) a number of agreements between the European Union and non-EU countries, as well as with international organisations.  These agreements may cover broad areas such as trade, co-operation and development or they may deal with specific subjects such as textiles, fisheries, science and technology, transport etc.

42.  Approving the EU budget  The EU’s annual budget is decided jointly by the Council and the European Parliament.

43.  Common Foreign and Security Policy  The member states of the EU are working to develop a Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP).  But foreign policy, security and defence are matters over which the individual national governments retain independent control.

44.  They have not pooled their national sovereignty in these areas, so Parliament and the European Commission play only a limited role here.  However, the EU countries have much to gain by working together on these issues, and the Council is the main forum in which this ‘inter-governmental co- operation’ takes place.

45.  To enable it to respond more effectively to international crises, the European Union has created a ‘Rapid Reaction Force’.  This is not a European army: the personnel remain members of their national armed forces and under national command, and their role is limited to carrying out humanitarian, rescue, peacekeeping and other crisis management tasks.

46. EU’S EXTERNAL RELATIONS CASES OF SOUTH EAST EUROPE & TURKISH CYPRIOT COMMUNITY Enlargement Policy

47. The EU: Enlargement Policy towards the Balkans  For half a century, the European Union has pursued ever-deeper integration while taking in new members. Most of the time, the two processes took place in parallel.  A growing membership has been part of the development of European integration right from the start.  Today's EU, with 27 Member States and a population of close to 500 million people, is much safer, more prosperous, stronger and more influential than the original European Economic Community of 50 years ago, with its 6 members and population of less than 200 million.

48.  Now, the EU, a community of values based on peace and freedom, democracy and the rule of law, as well as tolerance and solidarity is the world's largest economic zone.  The wider internal market and new economic opportunities have increased Europeans' prosperity and competitiveness.

49. South East Europe  The governments of the EU Member States, coming together in the European Council, have agreed to extend the EU perspective to countries in South East Europe - Croatia, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Serbia, Kosovo under UN Security Council Resolution 1244 and Turkey.  Membership will only happen when the necessary requirements are met.

50. CANDIDATE COUNTRIES

51. Formally accepted candidates  Iceland ?  The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia  Montenegro  Turkey

52. CROATIA  Croatia has been a candidate country for EU membership since June 2004. It was the second country to sign a Stabilisation and Association Agreement (SAA) with the EU on 29 October 2001. This agreement entered into force on 1 February 2005.  On 3 October 2005 the Council decided to open accession negotiations with Croatia. On 12 February 2008 the Council adopted the new Accession Partnership for the country.  The status in the accession negotiations is that there are 30 provisionally closed chapters and negotiations have been opened in 33 chapters.

53. FYR of MACEDONIA  The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia was granted candidate country status for EU membership in 2005. On 18 February 2008 the Council adopted the Accession Partnership for the country, thus updating the previous European Partnership of January 2006.  A visa facilitation agreement and readmission agreement with the EU has been in force since 1 January 2008. On 15 July the European Commission proposed to grant visa liberalisation to the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia.  The Stabilisation and Association Agreement (SAA) with the countrywas signed on 9 April 2001 and entered into force on 1 April 2004. An Interim Agreement, covering trade and trade-related aspects, entered into force in June 2001.

54. ICELAND  Iceland is a country with deep democratic roots and a tradition of good governance, high social and environmental standards and historically close ties with many other European countries.  Iceland already enjoys a high degree of integration with the EU through its membership of the European Economic Area (EEA) since 1994, as well as the Schengen area, which allows its citizens to travel and work freely throughout the EU.

55.  Through the EEA, Iceland already participates in the single market and contributes financially towards social and economic cohesion in Europe.  A significant proportion of the EU's laws are applied in Iceland today. Iceland also participates, albeit with no voting rights, in a number of EU agencies and programmes, covering areas including enterprise, environment, education and research.  Iceland has been a member of The European Free Trade Association (EFTA) since 1970 and has a bilateral Free Trade Agreement with the EEC since 1972.  Two thirds (2/ 3) of Iceland's foreign trade is with EU Member States.

56.  Iceland is also a founding member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). Hit severely by the 2008 financial crisis and economic downturn, Iceland underwent an economic recession, following the collapse of its banking system and the devaluation of the national currency.  Nevertheless, the country's economic base remains strong and the prospect of EU membership is expected to have a stabilising effect on the Icelandic economy.  Already, the economy has been gradually making headway out of the crisis, with some encouraging signs of stabilisation and the IMF stabilisation programme on track.

57. MONTENEGRO  Montenegro is a candidate country for membership to the EU. Its European perspective was reaffirmed by the Council in June 2006 after the recognition of the country's independence by EU member states.  Montenegro has profited from EU autonomous trade measures since 2000.  As from 1 January 2008 access of Montenegrin products to the EU was expanded and EU exports to Montenegro have been granted trade preferences following the entry into force of the Interim Agreement. In 2009, notwithstanding the negative impact of the international crisis, integration with the EU remained high.  The main source of export revenues are tourism and metal industry. The EU is the main trading partner of the country...

58. The Balkans: South East European Cooperation Process The South East European Cooperation Process (SEECP)  which was born in 1996, in the aftermath of the wars in the former Yugoslavia. Countries in the SEECP  Candidates and potential candidates: Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, Turkey  EU countries in the region: Bulgaria, Greece, Romania, Slovenia  Moldova

59. TURKEY  Turkey is a candidate country for EU membership following the Helsinki European Council of December 1999. Accession negotiations[started in October 2005 with the analytical examination of the EU legislation (the so-called screening process). Since then the EU closed provisionally one chapter and opened negotiations on 12 chapters.  On 18 February 2008 the Council adopted a revised Accession Partnership with Turkey.  Turkey has had a long association with the project of European integration. The European Economic Community (EEC) signed in 1963 the Ankara Association Agreement for the progressive establishment of a customs union. The Ankara Association was supplemented by an Additional Protocol signed in November 1970.

60.  Due to the Turkish failure to apply to Cyprus the Additional Protocol to the Ankara Agreement the Council decided in December 2006 that eight relevant chapters will not be opened and no chapter will be provisionally closed until Turkey has fulfilled its commitment.  The eight chapters are: Free Movement of Goods, Right of Establishment and Freedom to Provide Services, Financial Services, Agriculture and Rural Development, Fisheries, Transport Policy, Customs Union and External Relations.  Source: europa.eu

61. Potential Candidates  Albania  Bosnia and Herzegovina  Kosovo under UN Security Council Resolution 1244  Serbia Source: europa.eu

62. Turkish Cypriot community  Cyprus joined the EU on 1 May 2004 as a divided island. Turkish Cypriots and Greek Cypriots need urgently to find a solution to the Cyprus problem and thus to end a conflict on European soil that is now more than 40 years old.  The EU fully supports the renewed negotiations between the leaders of the two communities, Dervis Eroglu and Demetrios Christofias, under the auspices of the UN, to reach a comprehensive settlement leading to the re- unification of the island.  The EU will accommodate a Cyprus settlement provided that it allows Cyprus to play its full role as a Member State and that it respects the basic principles upon which the EU is founded – democracy, the rule of law and human rights.

63.  The whole of the island is in the EU. However, in the northern part of the island, in the areas in which the Government of Cyprus does not exercise effective control, EU legislation is suspended in line with Protocol 10 of the Accession Treaty 2003.  The situation will change once a Cyprus settlement enters into force and it will then be possible for EU rules to apply over the whole of the island.  However, the suspension does not affect the personal rights of Turkish Cypriots as EU citizens. They are citizens of a Member State, the Republic of Cyprus, even though they may live in the northern part of Cyprus, the areas not under government control.

64.  The two parts of the island remain divided by the "Green Line" that separates the government- controlled areas from the rest of the island.  The Council approved the Green Line Regulation (Council Regulation No 866/2004) on 29 April 2004 to deal with the movement of persons and goods across the line.  While many people move across the Green Line every day, trade across the line remains limited, amounting to approximately € 600.000 per month. Source: europa.eu

65.  On 27 February 2006 the EU approved an aid regulation for the benefit of the Turkish Cypriot community aimed at putting an end to the isolation of this community and helping prepare for the reunification of the island 2 €259 million was voted in 2006 for this programme which is to be implemented by the Commission (DG Enlargement) over five years...

66. DG Enlargement: The main aims are 1.) social and economic development; 2.) infrastructure, in particular energy and transport, environment, telecommunications and water supply; 3.) reconciliation, confidence building measures, and support to civil society; 4.) bringing the Turkish Cypriot community closer to the Union, through information on the EU, and contacts between Turkish Cypriots and other EU citizens; 5.) helping the Turkish Cypriot community to be ready to implement EU rules (acquis communautaire) in case of a comprehensive settlement.

67.  Over 99 percent of the € 259 million Aid Programme for the Turkish Cypriot community has been contracted by the Commission before the deadline of 18 December 2009.  A total of 880 contracts, most of them grants, have been signed. Most of the contracts will be completed by the end of 2011.  Source: europa.eu

68. Role of the European Commission  The European Commission has several specific responsibilities reflecting the unique diplomatic, political and legal situation in Cyprus. These are in addition to the normal role of the Commission with regard to any Member State.  The Commission stands ready to provide any support to the negotiations aimed at reaching a comprehensive settlement that the two sides might request.  The Commission will follow the development of the process closely, and set up the arrangements necessary to ensure that the Commission can respond swiftly as and when required.

69.  The Commission implements directly the aid programme decided by Member States to help the Turkish Cypriots prepare for reunification.  The Commission reports regularly on the implementation of the Green Line regulation.  To meet these responsibilities, the Directorate- General for Enlargement within the Commission set up the Task Force for the Turkish Cypriot community.

70. A CASE STUDY: MIDDLE EAST DEMOCRATIZATION

71. Democratization – Political Liberalization in MENA region  There is a requirement to distinguish 2 terms!  Key Points:  Literature Review on democracy in the Middle East  Arab Spring – roots and consequences  Case studies from the MENA region

72. Differentiation of the themes Rex Brynen...  Political Liberalization  stands for “the expansion of public through the recognition and protection of cvil and political liberties”  Democratization  “entails an expansion of political participation...to provide citizens with a degree of real and meaningful collective control over public policy”

73. Is there an Arab exception?  Ta’addudiyya (multipartyism)  Bianchi  cosmetic democratization argument that refers to “corporatist – associative model in which political exchange takes place between political and economic groups at the top.. Without involving the base”.

74. Impact of Orientalism  As Simon Bromely (1997) notes the conventional view that: “democracies are strangers to the Middle East... the limited post-independence experiments with democratic politics did not survive, the rise of nationalist forces seeking modernization and independence, were thwarted by monarchical rule and oil wealth”. ( p. 329 in Beverley Milton-Edwards – our textbook )

75. Exceptionalism  The culturalist (on the basis of Muslim political culture) arguments then lead to a concept of exceptionalism. “The idea of an Arab or Islamic exceptionalism has thus re-emerged among both western proponents of universal democracy and established orientalists, and this in turn has encouraged a great many local apologists of cultural authenticity in their rejection of western models of government” (Salamé, 1994)

76. For Simon Bromely “the relative absence of democracy in the Middle East has little to do with the region’s Islamic culture and much to do with its particular pattern of state formation”

77. Important themes shaping democracy debate in the Middle East 1. The critique of the Arab/ Islamic civilization is uniquely exceptional! 2. Theoretical dimesions of liberalization – democratization 3. Economic liberalization 4. Civil society 5. Islam – clash of civilizations 6. Israel

78. Four VARIABLES 1. Political Culture 2. Political Economy 3. Civil society 4. International Context

79. Islam and democracy  Nazih Ayubi  “I would argue myself that Islamic culture contains elements that may be both congenial and uncogenial to democracy, depending on the particular society and on the historical conjuncture”.

80. For Esposito & Piscatori  “whether the word democracy is used or not, almost all Muslims today react to it as one of the universal conditions of the modern world. To this extent it has become part of Muslim political thought and discourse”.

81. Fred Halliday:  “If there are in a range of Islamic countries evident barriers to democracy, this has to do with certain other social and political features that their societies share”

82. Al-Nahda & IAF  Formation of al-Nahda in Tunisia (1980s) and IAF in Jordan (1992)  evidence of liberalization of Islamic thinking on issues of plurality, democracy, partisan politics and elections (Martin Kramer)

83. Martin Kramer  “Islamic fundamentalists only embrace democracy in an instrumentalist and short-term fashion as a strategy for Islamic statehood which is both authoritarian and anti-democratic”  Democracy he writes “diversity, accomodation – the fundamnetalists have repudiated them all”.

84. NAZIH AYUBI says... “most fundamnetalist groupings act as a counter- democratic force; whereas some of the factors that explain the delay of democratization in the Middle East are purely economic or technological, rather than religious or cultural, there is little doubt that the refusal by ruling elites to allow an element of participation for Islamic movements is an added casuse for the slow pace of democratization in many Muslim societies”.

85. Cases  Israel  Jordan  Algeria

86. CASE STUDY A REGION: MIDDLE EAST IN WORLD AFFAIRS Analyzing Middle East as a REGION

87. From the article written by Fawaz A. Gerges...  In Orientalism; Edward Said offers a criticism of Orientalism  Middle Eastern studies as practised in the West.  The book Orientalism is a criticism of “a Western style for dominating, restructuring, and having authority over the Orient”.

88. The ORIENT  Study of the Orient  has been closely connected with the interests of the dominant colonial-minded imperialist powers; Britain & France; the USA since the end of the WWII.  For Said; the interest of the imperalist powers in the ME was both POLITICAL & CULTURAL !

89. Linkage between “power” and “knowledge” !  So the relationship between the Orient and the Occident is a relationship of POWER, of DOMINATION and of varying degrees of a COMPLEX HEGEMONY.  For Brynen; “the Middle East is still represented, rather than being allowed to represent itself”...

90. Definition and delineation of the Middle East  How we can define the Middle East?  Where Middle East starts and ends?  Or is there a Middle East?  Definitions of the region vary depending on the analysts’ research design.

91. Middle East as an abstraction..  Middle East for Gerges; is an artifical 19th century abstraction, a strategic concept imposed from without by the British authorities.  It is ironic that the term Middle East  has been spread to scholarly circles in the Middle East itself.  However as Gerges indicates; the definition is not merely academic! It ıs also political and ideological...

92. Matar and Dessouki  For them; the term Middle East is a political concept  in its origin and usage that reflects the strategic interests of the great powers.  For Matar & Dessouki  the concept Middle East fails to capture regional dynamics and processes.

93. For Gerges... “... the obsession with the foreign relations of the Great Powers – mainly those of the US and the SU (until the end of the Cold War) – leads to a narrowing of focus and to a minimizing of regional processes which as often as not take a higher priority over international issues in the eyes of Middle East leaders”.

94. Thus...  The relationship between the REGION and the GREAT POWERS is hierarchical !!  More systemic analysis of the Middle East is required.

95. Middle East as a subsystem !  Including peculiar mixture of domestic, regional, and international politics  Adding other forces and variables which might explain the dynamics of int relations of the region better!

96.  The main problem appears to be that the Middle East, despite how important it is perceived to be to world politics, is neglected or ignored by Western scholars as a source for theory development; and that too many IR scholars appear to view the region as too unique, or as not fitting very well into IR approaches.

97. Stuyding ME studies through IR theory  Is the Middle East unique?  Or; the Middle East is unique to the extent that any region of the world is unique!!  it is not true that the Middle East is completely ignored in IR scholarship  Stephen M. Walt’s neorealist The Origins of Alliances and Michael Barnett’s constructivist Dialogues in Arab Politics

98.  Fred Halliday adopts a historical-sociological framework;  Raymond Hinnebusch and Anoushiravan Ehteshami construct a “neorealist” scaffold (though they also incorporate several other conceptual elements), and  Hinnebusch later expands on this by creating a multi- theoretical explanation based on historical sociology, structuralism, constructivism, and neorealism

99.  “American syllabus on the IR of the Middle East available on the Internet indicates that these sources dominate such courses and their reading lists, with less emphasis on theoretical, methodological, and—from these—empirical questions and debate, including little if any interest in broader questions of epistemology.”  Thus the focus seems to be less International Relations and more simple description.

100. International Relations of the Middle East, edited by Louise Fawcett  A critique..  First, the book is organized not according to specific IR approaches or models, but rather specific issues and themes.  Second, there is a tendency in the teaching of this area to list extant IR theories or models, and then argue that they are inadequate for explaining regional politics

101. Systemic-Materialist Approaches  Applying systemic models begins with defining a “system”. Standard understandings would focus on the system as the stage on which actors engage with each other in their international interactions.  Since there can be many levels of system (for example, global, regional, and so on), opening up the discussion to the nature of the Middle Eastern system brings in different IR concepts while highlighting their relevance for how we think about the region. (p. 17)

102. Example... Gregory Gause..  Gause, for example, makes a good case that North African states might be secondary to such conversations because they are not integrated closely into the regular set of international issues the rest of the region engages in, such as the Arab-Israeli conflict and transnational Arabism or Islamism...

103. Systemic approaches may also lead to  prioritize the “state” as the premier institution and the one to which theories much point— but that in the case of the Middle East itself, it is non-state actors who often influence domestic and regional politics more.  Into this discussion can be inserted consideration of external powers, such as the United States, Russia, Europe, China, India, or others.

104. Colonialism and Postcolonialism  as way of thinking about the Middle East that conditions and shapes specific actions.  Such analysis begins with Edward Said’s Orientalism.  According to Said, the “Orient” is a European invention designed as an approach toward the region.  As Europe defined the Middle East in terms appropriate to its own perceptions, scholarship of the Orient became inextricably linked to European— and Western—policy toward the region.

105. Said & Orientalism...  If the West viewed the East in specific negative terms (as backward, primitive, etc.), Said argued, then the task of European policy toward the East became easier.  For example, as a way of thinking, Orientalism facilitated Western occupation of the Middle East and prevented self- government for its peoples.  If the Middle East was viewed as weak, irrational, and cowardly then it stood to reason that the West should rule over the region, depriving it of the right to sovereign statehood that the Western powers insisted on for themselves.

106.  In the case of the Middle East, the region is classified more as an appendage of the great powers than anything else, because these powers control what happens in the area for their own benefit.  In addition to leading to deep ideational negatives such as stereotypes, prejudice, racism, and Islamophobia, it also contributes to an under-development of the region itself.  By this understanding, then, blame for the region’s problems clearly lies with those outside the region.

107. Domestic Politics  Do Israel and Iraq engage in war with their neighbors because of something internal to them, or are there other, common, factors that matter?

108. REGIME SECURITY  A very fruitful area to study the intersection between theory, perception, and practice under this paradigm is regime security.  In Steven David’s words, “[i]t is the leadership of the state and not the state itself that is the proper unity of analysis for understanding … foreign policy.”  When applied to the Middle East, the concept is normally applied to the Arab states. By focusing on the regimes themselves, we can understand how the state will act; and in this way we can also understand how state behavior might be changed.

109. The state and regime  Under this conceptualization, the difference between state and regime is negligible.  The construction of state institutions (bureaucracies, militaries, parties, and domestic security services) is often done by regimes in power to help maintain themselves in power.  Narrowly-based regimes insert into the top positions of these institutions officials who are tied to the regime through family, tribe, ethnicity, or religion.  Thus, state institutions serve the needs of the regime, so that the two become indistinguishable.

110.  This melding of state and regime is a direct result of the illegitimacy inherent in both!

111. Example Michael HUDSON  Michael Hudson’s argument—that Arab regimes, lacking the institutionalized nature and long historical acceptance of Western states, do not have internal or external legitimacy, making them precarious and insecure —remains pertinent to any discussion of Arab states in the Middle East today

112. Nazih AYUBI  Nazih Ayubi has argued that such conditions have forced the Arab regimes to general legitimacy in one of two ways: by promoting nationalism populism, radicalism, and revolution, or by relying on kin-based relations and financial capital.  These internal conditions have had considerable impact on foreign policy, particularly toward Israel as well as toward each other, often leading to an exaggeration of conflict and aggression.  Thus, understanding the genesis of these foreign policies through the application of theory not only provides a better understanding of them, but also how to deal with and perhaps mitigate them.

113. Identity...  A final paradigm useful for teaching how to apply IR theory to the Middle East is found in a focus on culture and identity of specific actors.  This is a constructivist understanding of international relations: constructivism emphasizes the social nature of world politics, in that actor interactions are based not on an objective reality but rather how the actors themselves interpret that reality and, through their relations with each other, promote these different interpretations!

114.  Identity acts as a blueprint for action by shaping actors’ perceptions of who they are and how they should behave within such a context,and, from there, regional interactions.

115. Example  As one study argued—written by a simultaneously Middle East scholar and IR theorist—Israel long saw itself as a “good” state, moral and just.  During the 1980s, though, it began to act in ways that contradicted this self- perception, particularly the 1982 invasion of Lebanon and the first intifada. In both Israel acted harshly against others, violently enough that many Israelis began to ask themselves how they could treat others this way.  Israeli self-perceptions were threatened and called into question, prompting behavior to reassert the prior self-perceptions by changing policy toward the Palestinians (that is, engaging in the peace process and eventually the Oslo Accords).

116.  This paradigm demonstrates; the nature of specific actor identities, and how it shapes domestic politics and from there foreign policy...  the prominence of the Likud and Labor parties, representative  as they are of two opposite ideas on the Israeli political spectrum

117. IR 401/ IR 402 ANALYSIS OF IR HOW TO PREPARE A PRESENTATION FOR

118. CHOOSE A TOPIC  Please choose a topic in IR; an international issue/ conflict/ question happening in world politics  The topic should be related with IR and needs to be a CURRENT issue.

119.  Examples:  Crisis in Syria  Clashes at East Jerusalem (al-Aqsa Mosque)  Catalonian Parliamentary elections and quest for independence  Euro-zone & economic crisis in Greece  ISIS and insurgence of radical Islamist actors  US-Iranian relations today  US-Russian rivalry over the Middle East

120. How to prepare! Step 1  Formulate a research objective, before start writing your presentation;  Give a short INTRODUCTION to the audience in the beginning of your presentation, which addresses your main objective in presentating the paper;  Using Power point is optional, not compulsory

121. Step 2  Give a short historical background of the topic/ conflict to the audience  And tell them what the CONFLICT is about!!  Who are the main ACTORS/ PARTIES to the dispute or the issue  What is their position (s) regarding the issue/ conflict?

122. Step 3  What is exactly the conflict/ issue is about TODAY?  The impact of the conflict?  Please tell the audience the role and positions of the actors (states or non-state actors)

123.  Given that you have found an international issue to address; please explain the followings:  What are the domestic dynamics;  Regional (at inter-state level);  International dimensions of the conflict?

124. LEVEL of ANALYSIS  WHICH LEVEL of ANALYSIS explains your topic best? - Individual - Domestic - Regional or - Global ?

125. Some Notes  Presentations will last for 15 mins;  Using power point is optional;  Please do not memorize;  Please try your best to do PRESENTATION rather than reading from the notes!!!  Your presentation will be concluded by Questions & Answers

126.  ALL PRESENTATIONS will be held after the MID- TERM EXAMS  Pleas let me know when you will present until 26th October, 2015 - MONDAY

127. Good Luck !