1. TSL 591 : MTR Hudson, Chapter 3

2.  When talking about second language reading the main question that needs to be addressed is: ◦ Is it a reading problem or a language problem?  The question is central to sorting the causes and origins of 2nd language reading problem.

3.  Hulstijn (1991) ◦ Questions on whether good or poor readers read in the same way in their 1 st language need to be addressed ◦ Why? 1.Increase in our understanding of 2 nd language reading proficiency when link to theories of 1 st language research 2.Important in our understanding of 2 nd language reading if the reading processes are similar

4.  Differences between 1 st and 2 nd language readers: 1. Since L2 readers are proficient in the 1 st language, they may transfer L1 skills to L2 ◦ May assist or interfere 2. Reading in L1 normally begins after speaking in L1 is advanced, but L2 learners do not normally master spoken skills when reading instruction begins. 3. Great cognitive difference between child 1st language readers and adult 2 nd language readers

5.  Two contrasting views on second language learners’ success in foreign language reading 1. Success in reading a foreign language depends upon 1 st language reading ability rather than level of English 2. Reading problems of second or foreign language learners are the result of imperfect knowledge of the language

6.  Alderson’s hypotheses on 2 nd language reading performance: 1. Poor reading in FL is due to poor reading in L1 2. Poor reading in FL is due to inadequate knowledge of TL Modifications to the above hypotheses: 1. Poor FL reading is due incorrect strategies used, strategies not similar to L1 2. Poor FL reading is due to strategies in L1 not being employed in FL due to inadequate knowledge in FL. Good L1 readers will read well in FL once passed a threshold of FL ability.threshold

7.  Studies tend to find: ◦ Strong relationship between 2 nd language linguistic ability and 2 nd language reading ability ◦ Moderate relationship between 1 st language reading ability and 2 nd language reading ability, depending upon level of language ability  Studies by Perkins et al. (1989) & Carson et al. (1990): ◦ Indicate a moderate relationship between 1 st language and 2 nd language reading ◦ Suggest that some transfer of reading ability is possible

8.  Studies by Carrell (1991) and Yamashita (2002) looked at L2 Reading = L1 Reading + L2 Language Proficiency  Findings of both studies suggest: ◦ Strong relationship between 1 st language and 2 nd language reading for higher-level students ◦ Once readers become more advanced 1 st language reading ability becomes increasingly important

9.  Bosser’s (1991) study: ◦ Examined the relation between 1 st language reading, 2 nd language reading and 2 nd language ability ◦ Results:  2 nd language ability and 1 st language reading play a substantial role in 2 nd language reading  Possible existence of a threshold level before learners are limited in their ability to transfer 1 st language reading abilities to 2 nd language reading context

10.  Lee & Schallert (1997): ◦ Examined whether no or little effective transfer of L1 reading strategies until the learner reached a threshold level of L2 ability ◦ Results:  L1 reading ability contributed less to L2 reading ability than L2 proficiency  There is a language threshold where L1 reading skills begin to contribute to L2 reading ability.

11.  Fecteau (1999): ◦ Examined relationship between L1 and L2 reading of literature for more advanced-level FL learners ◦ Result:  Subjects were able to transfer L1 language literature reading skills to reading L2 literature

12.  Donin & Silva (1993): ◦ Attempted to differentiate aspects of L2 reading comprehension specific to reading in L2 from factors relevant to understanding text in any language ◦ Result:  Reading time slower when reading in L2

13.  Taillefer (1996): ◦ Examined the relationship between L1 reading and L2 reading across 2 different tasks ◦ Results:  L1 reading ability and L2 proficiency to be significant predictors of FL reading depending upon the particular reading task.  More demanding reading tasks may call on greater need for L2 proficiency  The use L1 reading ability aids the L2 reader only after the reader has a threshold of L2 ability.

14.  There are interrelationships between L1 reading ability, L2 proficiency and L2 reading performance  Results of research tend to show that L2 proficiency plays a greater role that L1 reading ability ◦ Also it is dependent on the type of reading task ◦ Most important at the lower level of L2 proficiency  Interactions between the 3 elements above is dependent on whether the learners are in foreign or 2 nd language context