1. KATE BLACK KATE BRAZZALE LISA MOLONY PAIN

2. Aetiology Disorder/Disease Clinical Manifestations Pathophysiology Diagnosis Pharmacological Management Non-Pharmacological Management Complications Implications for Nursing Practice

3. AETIOLOGY

5. DISORDER/DISEASE

7. CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS

9. PATHOPHYSIOLOGY

11. DIAGNOSIS Diagnosis of Pain is complicated. To diagnose pain, Nurses rely on Objective Data. Visual signs. Subjective Data. Patients descriptions. Characteristics of Pain.

12. DIAGNOSIS Characteristics of Pain OPQRST Mnemonic Onset Provocation Quality Region/Radiation Severity Time

13. DIAGNOSIS 1.Onset What was the patient doing at the time? What precipitated the pain? 2.Provocation Aggravating Factors: What causes the Pain to increase? Alleviating Factors: What makes it better or worse?

14. DIAGNOSIS 3. Quality Get the patient to describe their pain to you in specific terms. What does it feel like? 4. Region/Radiation Where is the pain? Where does the pain radiate? Is it in one place? Does it go anywhere else? Did it start elsewhere and now localised to a different spot?

15. DIAGNOSIS 5. Severity Pain Rating On a scale of 1 to 10, 10 being the worst pain you have experienced, what number would you assign to your discomfort? Does their pain change with medication? Wong-Baker Faces Pain Rating Scale. Used for Children People whose first language is not English.

16. DIAGNOSIS

17. 6. Time When did the pain start? How long has the patient has this pain? Are there any Associated Phenomena? Factors consistent with pain e.g. Anxiety Physiological responses Sympathetic stimulation Parasympathetic stimulation Vital signs, skin colour, perspiration, pupil size, nausea, muscle tension, anxiety Behavioural Responses Posture, gross motor activities

18. DIAGNOSTIC TESTS Tests to verify pain. CT/CAT scan Computed Tomography or Computed Axial Tomography X-rays to produce an image of a cross-section of the body. MRI Scan Large magnet, radio waves and a computer produces detailed images of the body. Discography/Myelograms A contrast dye is injected into the spinal disk to enhance the X-Ray.

19. DIAGNOSTIC - TESTS EMG (Electromyography) Evaluate the activity of the muscles. Bone Scans Diagnose and monitor infection and fracture of the bone Ultrasound Imaging High frequency sound waves to develop an image of the affected area.

20. DIAGNOSTIC TESTS Psychological Assessment Psychosocial involvement. Questionnaires.

21. PHARMACOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT

23. NON-PHARMACOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT

25. TENS MACHINE

27. COMPLICATIONS

29. IMPLICATIONS FOR NURSING PRACTICE

31. REFERENCES