1. Reconfigurable Computing - VHDL - Types John Morris Chung-Ang University The University of Auckland

2. You can give a variable an initial value when you declare it! Types  VHDL is a fully-fledged programming language with a rich type system*  Types include  Those normally found in high level programming languages  integer, character, real, …  Example declarations *Computer scientist’s jargon for “You can make all the data types you need” VARIABLE a, b : integer := 0; x, y : real := 1.2e-06; p : character;

3. Types - Defining precision and range  Sub-types  Ada (and therefore VHDL) has a very flexible means of specifying exactly the requirements for representations (physical realizations) of numbers  This capability is important for efficient physical realizations  If you write VARIABLE x : integer; in your model, the synthesizer has to `guess’ how many bits of precision that you need for x!  However, if you write VARIABLE x : integer RANGE 0.. 255; then the compiler knows that an 8-bit representation will be adequate!  Specifying the range of a data type is essential for efficient implementation You don’t want the synthesizer to generate a 32-bit adder/subtracter/multiplier/… when an 8-bit one would do!

4. Literals – or constants  Most literals are similar to other languages  Integers – 0, 1, +1, -5, …  Reals – 0.0, 3.24, 1.0e+6, -6.5e-20, …  Characters – ‘A’, ‘a’, ‘(’, …  Strings (formally arrays of characters) – “clockA”, “data”, …  Numbers in non-decimal bases  For efficient digital circuit modeling, we need to specify numbers in binary, octal, hexadecimal  Ada and VHDL use a form: base#number#  Examples:  2#001110#, 8#76771#, 16#a5a5#

5. Additional standard types  Boolean  Values are ‘true’ and ‘false’ VARIABLE open, on : boolean := false;  Natural  The natural numbers from 0 → n  n is implementation defined  Commonly n = 2 32 -1  Positive  Numbers from 1 → n Good practice tip! Use boolean, natural and positive when appropriate eg for counters use natural rather than integer This helps the simulator detect errors in your program!

6. Libraries  VHDL’s standard defines a number of libraries or ‘ package ’s (using the Ada term)  The most useful is the IEEE 1164 standard logic package  To use it, add to the start of your program:  This library is just a VHDL package  You can usually find the source of it on your system  It is worthwhile looking through it … it provides many useful examples of VHDL capabilities! You probably should just add this to every file – You will need it most of the time! LIBRARY ieee; USE ieee.std_logic_1164.all;

7. IEEE 1164 standard logic package  std_logic is the most important type in this package  It’s an enumerated type: TYPE std_logic IS (‘U’, ‘X’, ‘0’, ‘1’, ‘Z’, ‘W’, ‘H’, ‘L’, ‘-’ ); ‘U’ Unknown ‘X’ Forcing unknown ‘0’ Forcing 0 ‘1’ Forcing 1 ‘Z’ High impedance ‘W’ Weak unknown ‘L’ Weak 0 ‘H’ Weak 1 ‘-’ Don’t care

8. IEEE 1164 standard logic package  You should always use std_logic in place of the (apparently) simpler bit type!  bit has values (‘0’, ‘1’) only  Always use the simplest possible type?  Not in this case!!  ‘Digital’ circuits are really analogue circuits in which we hope we can consider 0 and 1 values only!  Use of std_logic allows the simulator to pinpoint sources of error for you!

9. IEEE 1164 standard logic package  std_logic lets the simulator pinpoint errors for you!  ‘U’ – indicates a signal which has not yet been driven  Good design will ensure all signals are in known states at all times  A probable source of error in a properly designed circuit  ‘X’ → two drivers are driving a signal with ‘0’ and ‘1’  A definite error!  Good design practice would ensure  All signals are defined in a reset phase  No ‘U’ ’s appear in the simulator waveforms (except in the initial reset phase)  Lines are never driven in opposite directions Can cause destruction of drivers and catastrophic failure High power consumption Examine simulator traces for ‘X’ – there shouldn’t be any!

10. IEEE 1164 standard logic package  Bus pull-up and pull-down resistors can be ‘inserted’  Initialise a bus signal to ‘H’ or ‘L’:  ‘0’ or ‘1’ from any driver will override the weak ‘H’ or ‘L’: SIGNAL not_ready : std_logic := ‘H’; IF seek_finished = ‘1’ THEN not_ready <= ‘0’; END IF; /ready 10k V DD DeviceADeviceBDeviceC

11. IEEE 1164 standard logic package  Bus drivers can be disconnected  After a bus signal has been driven, it’s necessary to ‘release’ it:  eg once this device has driven not_ready, it should release it so that another device on the bus can assert (drive) it SIGNAL not_ready : std_logic := ‘H’; IF seek_finished = ‘1’ THEN not_ready <= ‘0’; END IF; … -- Perform device actions -- Now release not_ready not_ready <= ‘Z’;

12. Standard logic buses  VHDL supports arrays  Define an array with  In digital logic design, arrays of std_logic are very common, so a standard type is defined:  std_logic_vector is defined as an unconstrained array:  This means that you can supply the array bounds when you declare the array: TYPE bus8 IS ARRAY(0 TO 7) OF std_logic; data: bus8 := “ZZZZZZZZ”; data: std_logic_vector(0 TO 7) := “ZZZZZZZZ”; TYPE std_logic_vector IS ARRAY(integer RANGE <>) OF std_logic; cmd: std_logic_vector(0 TO 2) := “010”; address: std_logic_vector(0 TO 31); We will learn more about unconstrained arrays later. Using them allows you to make complex models which you can use in many situations!

13. Standard logic buses  VHDL supports arrays  Note that arrays can be defined with  ascending or  descending indices:  This could be considered convenient or it can lead to confusion!  Careful use of type attributes can make production and maintenance of VHDL models relatively painless! TYPE bus8 IS ARRAY(0 TO 7) OF std_logic; TYPE rev_bus8 is ARRAY(7 DOWNTO 0) OF std_logic;

14. Attributes  Attributes of variables and types are the values of properties of types and variables  For example, if you have defined an array:  then x’LOW and x’HIGH refer to the bounds of the array:  x’LOW is 0  x’HIGH is 31 x : std_logic_vector(0 to 31);

15. Attributes  Useful attributes are:  For all type of variables  LEFT, RIGHT – First or leftmost (last or rightmost) value of a variable eg for a : NATURAL RANGE 0 TO 255; a’LEFT is 0 and a’RIGHT is 255  RANGE – eg x’RANGE is 0 to 31 It can be used anywhere a range is needed  eg declaring another array of the same size:  followed by  means that if you change the width of x, eg to change to a 64-bit bus, y will automatically follow  There are more attributes which apply only to signals – we will consider them later x : std_logic_vector(0 TO 31); y : std_logic_vector(x’RANGE);

16. This is the first example of an algorithmic model. Note that the ‘code’ is embedded In a PROCESS block.  Now you can make a module which counts the bits in vectors of any size: Input can be any std_logic vector Attributes ENTITY bitcounter IS PORT ( x: IN std_logic_vector; cnt : OUT natural ); END bitcounter; ARCHITECTURE a OF bitcounter IS BEGIN PROCESS VARIABLE count : natural := 0; BEGIN FOR j IN x’RANGE LOOP IF x(j) = ‘1’ THEN count := count + 1; END LOOP; cnt <= count; END PROCESS; END a;  The entity is  The architecture is RANGE attribute produces the correct loop indices

17. VHDL ‘Program’ statements  Process blocks  Placed inside architectures  Wrappers for program statements  Activated by changes in signals in sensitivity lists -- Template for a state machine ARCHITECTURE fsm OF x IS BEGIN PROCESS( clk, reset ) IF reset = ‘0’ THEN -- Initialization statements ELSE WHEN clk’EVENT AND clk = ‘1’ LOOP -- Main state machine END LOOP; END IF; END PROCESS; END fsm; This template contains many features of PROCESS blocks, so we’ll examine it in more detail 

18. VHDL ‘Program’ statements  This example assumes we have a clocked state machine with clk and reset inputs and several other inputs and outputs  The ENTITY is -- Template for a state machine ARCHITECTURE fsm OF x IS BEGIN PROCESS( clk, reset ) … END PROCESS; END fsm; -- State machine entity ENTITY x IS PORT ( … -- inputs and outputs -- needed by this SM clk, reset : IN std_logic ); END ENTITY; clk reset inputs outputs

19. VHDL ‘Program’ statements  Process blocks -- Template for a state machine ARCHITECTURE fsm OF x IS BEGIN PROCESS( clk, reset ) IF reset = ‘0’ THEN -- Initialization statements ELSE WHEN clk’EVENT AND clk = ‘1’ LOOP -- Main state machine END LOOP; END IF; END PROCESS; END fsm; PROCESS blocks start with PROCESS( sensitivity list ) and end with END PROCESS; The PROCESS blocks is entered (activated) on a change in any signal in the sensitivity list. In this case, every change of reset or clk will cause the PROCESS block to be entered and evaluated.

20. VHDL ‘Program’ statements  Process blocks -- Template for a state machine ARCHITECTURE fsm OF x IS BEGIN PROCESS( clk, reset ) IF reset = ‘0’ THEN -- Initialization statements ELSE WHEN clk’EVENT AND clk = ‘1’ LOOP -- Main state machine END LOOP; END IF; END PROCESS; END fsm; Note the END IF pattern – Most VHDL blocks are like this. Here is an IF … THEN … ELSE … END IF; block.

21. Architectures – Architectural style  Exercise  Complete the structural model for a full adder by adding the `circuitry’ for the carry out signal  Write a (very short) paragraph describing how your additions to the full adder model work. If you do this, I will also try to help you improve your technical English by carefully correcting your paragraph. (Hopefully, if we start with some short, simple exercises, you will become much more fluent before the end of semester!)  Bring your exercise to the lecture on Tuesday morning.