3. The Experiments of Gregor Mendel Genetics – the study of heredity Mendel – studied ordinary pea plants The Role of Fertilization Pea plants – self-pollinating – sperm cells fertilize egg cell within same flower Fertilization – production of a new cell Mendel’s pea plants were “true-breeding” – self-pollinating and each successive generation would be the same. Trait – a specific characteristic, such as seed color or plant height, of an individual. Mendel crossed “true-breeding” plants – caused one plant to reproduce with another plant. Hybrid – the offspring of crosses between parents with different traits.

4. Genes and Alleles Genes – an individual’s characteristics are determined by factors, called genes, that are passed from one parental generation to the next. Alleles – different forms of a gene Plant height – Tall plant, short plant Dominant and Recessive Alleles Principle of Dominance – some alleles are dominant and others are recessive. Dominant – genes that keep other genes from showing their traits Ex: DD Recessive – do not show their traits when dominant genes are present Ex: dd

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6. F1 Generation – hybrids had traits of only one parent Where did the recessive alleles go? Did they disappear? Mendel allowed seven F1 hybrids to self-pollinate F2 Generation – ¼ of F2 plant showed recessive allele At some point allele for tallness separated from allele for shortness - segregation Gametes – sex cells During gamete formation, the alleles for each gene segregate from each other, so that each gamete carries only one allele for each gene.

8. Probability and Punnett Squares Probability – likelihood that a particular event will happen. Flipping a coin Homozygous – organisms that have two identical alleles for a gene – TT or tt Heterozygous – organisms that have two different alleles for the same gene – Tt Genotype – genetic makeup – TT Phenotype – physical traits – Tall plant

9. The Punnett Square A way to show which genes can combine when egg and sperm join

10. Independent Assortment Genes for different traits can segregate independently during the formation of gametes.

11. First with Third, First with Fourth! Second with Third, Second with Fourth! R r Y y x R r Y y Always keep the same letters together! RrYy Keep Offspring in same letter format as Parents! Always keep the same letter first in dihybrid crosses, even if it is recessive!! R’s then Y’s RrYy RRYY Whatever the genotype!!!!!

13. Beyond Dominant and Recessive Alleles Incomplete Dominance – one allele is not completely dominant over another. Codominance – the phenotypes produced by both alleles are clearly expressed Husky eyes Multiple Alleles – many genes exist in several forms and therefore are said to have multiple alleles Rabbit coat, Human blood types Polygenic Traits – Many traits produced by interaction of several genes Polygenic – “many genes” Human skin color – more than four different genes

14. Genes and the Environment Environmental conditions can affect gene expression and influence genetically determined traits.

16. Chromosome Number Diploid Cells – most adult organisms contain two complete sets of inherited chromosomes and two complete sets of genes Humans = 2N = 46 Haploid – the gametes of sexually reproducing organisms are haploid. Human sex cells = N = 23 Human sex cells HAVE to be haploid because you get half from your mom’s egg (23) and half from your dad’s sperm (23) = 46 chromosomes in your body cells!

17. Phases of Meiosis Prophase I – replicated chromosome pairs with its corresponding homologous chromosomes. Tetrad – pairing which contains four chromatids. Crossing over – homologous chromosomes cross over, alleles exchanged. Chromatids of the homologous chromosomes cross over one another. Then, the crossed sections of the chromatids – which contain alleles – are exchanged. Produces new combinations of alleles in the cell.

18. Metaphase I – paired homologous chromosomes line up across center of cell. Anaphase I – spindle fibers pull each homologous chromosome pair toward opposite ends of the cell.

19. Telophase I – Nuclear membrane forms around each cluster of chromosomes. Cytokinesis – forming two new cells Metaphase I results in two cells, called daughter cells

20. Prophase II – chromosomes, consisting of two chromatids, condense and become visible. Do not form tetrads, because homologous pairs were already separated during meiosis I. Metaphase II – chromosomes line up down center of each cell. Anaphase II – Paired chromatids separate. Telophase II and Cytokinesis – four daughter cells contain a haploid number.

21. Haploid cells produced by meiosis II are the gametes that are so important to heredity. Male – sperm Female - egg Zygote – egg after it is fertilized. Undergoes cell division by mitosis and forms new organism.

23. Comparing Mitosis and Meiosis

24. Replication and Separation of Genetic Material Mitosis – when two sets of genetic material separate, each daughter cell receives one complete set of chromosomes. Meiosis – homologous chromosomes line up and then move to separate daughter cells. Two alleles for each gene are segregated, and end up in different cells. Changes in Chromosome Number Mitosis does not normally change the chromosome number of the original cell. Meiosis reduces the chromosome number by half. Number of Cell Divisions Mitosis results in the production of two genetically identical diploid cells, whereas meiosis produces four genetically different haploid cells.

25. Gene Linkage and Gene Maps Gene Linkage – Alleles of different genes tend to be inherited together from one generation to the next when those genes are located on the same chromosome. Thomas Hunt Morgan – 1910 – identified 50 Drosophila genes that appeared to be “linked” together in ways that seemed to violate the principle of independent assortment. Reddish-orange eyes and miniature wings were almost always inherited together. Morgan’s Findings led to two conclusions: 1. Each chromosome is actually a group of linked genes 2. Mendel’s principle of independent assortment still holds true. It is chromosomes, however, that assort independently, not individual genes. Gene Mapping – Alfred Sturtevant wondered if the frequency of crossing- over between genes during meiosis might be a clue to the genes’ locations. Further apart – more likely crossing-over Closer together – crossovers should be rare By this reason, he could use the frequency of crossing-over between genes to determine the distances from each other.