1. Unit 8- Reproduction 8a- Meiosis & Variation

2. Collect!
Benchmark 3 Study Guides that were due yesterday

3. Chromosome Number
Organisms have tens of thousands of genes that determine individual traits.
The more closely related two organisms are, the more genes they’ll have in common
Genes are lined up on chromosomes.
In somatic (body) cells of animals & most plants, chromosomes occur in pairs.
Called homologous chromosomes – each pair has genes that code for the same proteins.
1 chromosome came from the male parent & 1 from the female parent.
A cell with two of each kind of chromosome is called diploid (2n).

4. Chromosome Number Organisms also produce gametes
Haploid (n) reproductive cells- contain one of each kind of chromosome
Gametes have one of each kind of chromosome so that when they combine (as egg and sperm do during fertilization), the resulting cell is diploid.
Each species has a specific number of chromosomes.
Humans have 23 pairs (46 total)
Fruit Flies have 4 pairs (8 total)
Dogs have 39 pairs (78 total)

5. Human Chromosomes Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes
22 pairs of autosomes (chromosomes that do not determine gender)
1 pair of sex chromosomes
Karyotype

6. Meiosis: Why?
Mitosis divides one diploid cell to form two diploid cells
Example: A human cell with 46 chromosomes divides to form two cells with 46 chromosomes.
If each parent were to pass on a diploid cell to the offspring, that offspring would then have 4 copies of each chromosome
46 chromosomes from each parent would yield a 92 chromosome offspring
Meiosis allows for two divisions to divide one diploid cell into four haploid cells.
Results in a reduction in chromosome number
Aka reduction division

7. Meiosis: Where and Who?
Meiosis takes place in the gonads (sexual organs)
For humans, these are the ovaries & testes
Meiosis produces egg & sperm cells (gametes)
Humans can produce 223 different kinds of eggs & sperm….more than 8 million combinations!
Sexual reproduction requires the fusion of gametes (fertilization)
The haploid sperm and egg join to form a diploid zygote

8. Video!

9. Checkpoint
Mitosis created ____________ cells, meaning they had the same number of chromosomes, and they were genetically similar.
This was useful for processes like ________, and __________ of tissues.
Meiosis created genetically ___________ cells.
This is useful for ______________, the fusion of egg & sperm cells to form a zygote.

10. Meiosis Phases Meiosis occurs in 2 steps: Meiosis I Meiosis II
Results in 2 haploid daughter cells with duplicated chromosomes different from the sets in the original diploid cell.
Meiosis II
Results in 4 haploid daughter cells with single (unduplicated) chromosomes

11. Interphase- G1, S, G2
Before meiosis the cell must prepare for division:
Cells increase in size
DNA is replicated
Necessary proteins & RNA are synthesized
During this phase, chromosomes are not yet visible.

12. Prophase I Nuclear membrane breaks down
Centrosomes head to opposite poles & spindle forms
Duplicated chromosomes condense
As in mitosis, each chromosome consists of two identical sister chromatids attached at a point called the centromere.
(*hint- count centromeres to determine # of chromosomes*)

13. Prophase I Synapsis- homologous chromosomes pair up to form a tetrad
A homologous chromosome pair consists of two chromosomes containing the same type of genes.
Because the homologous chromosome pairs are very close to one another, an exchange of genetic material between the pairs occurs in a process called crossing over.
Crossing over causes the daughter cells to have DNA that is different (different gene combination) from the original parent cell
Genetic recombination

14. Crossing Over Results in Genetic Recombination

15. Metaphase I
Paired homologous chromosomes are aligned along equator of the cell with 1 chromosome of a pair on one side and the other chromosome of a pair on the other side.
Each pair is randomly oriented in terms of whether the paternal or maternal chromosome is on a given side of the equator.
Result is that 23 chromosomes, some from the mother & some from the father are lined up on each side of the equator.
This arrangement is called independent assortment
Causes the daughter cells to have DNA that is different from the original parent cell

16. Anaphase I
The homologous chromosome pairs separate and move to opposite poles of the cell.
Each daughter cell will receive only one chromosome from each homologous chromosome pair.
Sister chromatids remain attached to each other
Centromeres DO NOT split

17. Telophase I and Cytokinesis
Chromosomes gather at the poles and uncoil
Nuclear membrane reforms
Cytokinesis begins
Each of the 2 daughter cells contains one chromosome (consisting of 2 sister chromatids) from each parental pair, and are therefore haploid

18. Meiosis I

19. Prophase II Chromosomes become visible Spindle forms
If nuclear membrane reformed after Telophase I, it will break down now

20. Metaphase II
Chromosomes, made up of two sister chromatids, line up across the center of the cell in random order (just as they did during Mitosis)

21. Anaphase II
The chromosomes separate so that one chromatid from each chromosome goes to each pole.

22. Telophase II & Cytokinesis
Nuclear membrane reforms around each set of chromosomes
The cell undergoes cytokinesis
The four resulting daughter cells are still haploid (as they were at the end of meiosis I) because meiosis II is almost identical to mitosis
Each cell contains one chromosome from each homologous pair
Let’s See it!

23. Meiosis II

24. Genetic Variation
The DNA of the daughter cells produced by meiosis is different from that of the parent cells due to 3 sources of genetic diversity provided by sexual reproduction and meiosis:
Fertilization combines the genetic material of two genetically unique individuals (the 2 parents)
Crossing over produces new combinations of genes.
Independent assortment allows for the possibility of about 8 million different combinations of chromosomes that could end up in a cell produced by meiosis.