1. DNA Mutations
Mutations are changes to the genetic information of the cell. There are 2 different types of mutations
large scale – Chromosome sections
deletions, inversions, translocations, & polyploidy
point mutations – single nucleotide
Each mutation carries with it the ability to alter the phenotype of the individual and, if in the cells that create the gametes, all the offspring of the individual.

2. Point Mutations base-pair substitutions
silent mutation - substitution that leads to the same AA
has no phenotypic effect on the individual
ex: DNA 3'-CCG-5' changes to 3'-CCA-5'
ex: RNA 5'-GGC-3' changes to 5'-GGU-3', both code for Glycine

3. Point Mutations
missense mutation - change in a base pair that leads to a new AA
can improve protein function or render it useless (most often deleterious - sickle-cell anemia)
ex: DNA 3'-CCG-5' changes to 3'-TCG-5'
ex: RNA 5'-GGC-3' Gly changes to 5'-AGC-3' Ser

4. Point Mutations nonsense mutation - changes an AA to a stop
most often deleterious leading to a truncated (shortened) protein segment
ex: DNA 3'-TTC-5' changes to 3'-ATC-5'
ex: RNA 5'-AAG-3' Lys changes to 5'-UAG-3' Stop

5. Point Mutations Insertions & Deletions
lead to frame shifts if the insertion or deletion if it is in an exon
these mutations are almost always disastrous to the protein being formed as it changes all codons down stream

6. Mutagens physical and chemical agents that cause a change in DNA
physical - radiation
chemical - classified as carcinogens
Teratogen – leading to birth defects of the fetus