2.  Interest Group: linkage group that is a public or private organization, affiliation, or committee that has the goal of dissemination of its membership’s viewpoint  The result: will be persuading public policymakers to respond to the group’s perspective  Only criteria to join an interest group: have same interests & attitudes toward the goals of the organization  Once a group is formed – has internal functions of attracting and keeping a viable membership by making promises to their membership & being able to succeed in their political goals

3.  Pluralism (centrist position results b/c there is a more far-reaching and balanced group representation)  Elite (group behavior derives from upper class)  Hyperpluralism (so many competing groups it creates gridlock)

4.  Pluralists maintain that  Competing groups are healthy b/c they provide political connection to gov’t, offering gov’t officials a choice  Competition often clarifies information and prevents any one group from dominating gov’t  Competing groups have each developed political strategies to achieve their goals and that eventually the resources of one group will independently affect gov’t policy

5.  Critics of elite theory maintain that  Power is concentrated by largest and richest organizations  Unequal nature of power of groups negates fact that groups are proliferating  Ultimately $ talks, and these large groups will have the most influence

6.  Interest groups were a concern for founders (think Federalist #10)  Particularly concerned elites would gain control, blocking access to gov’t

7.  Raise awareness & stimulate interest in public affairs  Educate members & public  Represent membership – as link between members & gov’t  Provide info to the gov’t  Especially data & testimony to influence public policy  Provide channels for political participation enabling citizens to work together to achieve a common goal

8.  Economic interest groups  Most are formed on basis of economic interests  Labor groups promote & protect organized labor  AFL-CIO, Teamsters Union  Business groups promote & protect business interests in general  Chamber of Commerce of the US and National Association of Manufacturers  Professional groups maintain standards within a profession, hold professional meetings, publish journals  National Education Association (NEA), American Medical Association (AMA), American Bar Association (ABA)  Agricultural groups promote general agricultural & farmer interests  National Grange, National Farmers’ Union

9.  Groups that promote causes  Specific causes  American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU)  National Rifle Association (NRA)  Welfare of specific groups  American Association of Retired Persons (AARP)  National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)  Veterans of Foreign Wars (VFW)  Religion related causes  National Council of Churches  American Jewish Congress

10.  Public Interest Groups  Are concerned w/ issues such as the environment, consumer protection, crime, civil rights  League of Women Voters  Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD)  Sierra Club

11.  Influencing Elections (electioneering)  Encouraging members to vote for candidates who support their views  Influencing party platforms & nomination of candidates  Campaigning and contributing money to parties and candidates through political action committees (PACs)

12.  Litigation  Groups take an issue to court if unsuccessful in gaining support of Congress  Used successfully by NAACP in 1950s against segregation  Going public  Use the media!  Appealing to the public for support by bringing attention to an issue  Using public relations to gain support for the image of the interest group itself

13.  Lobbying (most powerful)  Attempting to influence policymakers by supplying data to gov’t officials to convince these policymakers their case is most deserving  Direct lobbying: using personal contacts between lobbyists and policymakers  Grassroots lobbying: interested group members & others write letters & emails, make phone calls to influence policymaking  Coalition lobbying: several interest groups w/ common goals join together to influence policymakers  Groups will often hire recently retired members of Congress to use inside experience to outmaneuver another group  Impropriety caused Congress to create a waiting period before former members can be such consultants  Even stricter rules apply to former members of executive branch hired to lobby former agencies

14.  Testify  Attend committee hearings & bring biases and points of expertise  Comment on possible impact of bills, esp. for or against goals of their group  Meet  Personal contacts are way to make political arguments  Paid junkets – lobby organizations pay for trips & vacations for members of gov’t  Highly controversial b/c open bias and bribery

15.  Research  Have time & resources to gather data to sway members of Congress  Lead  Sway masses w/in organization to call & write to the members of gov’t  Fund  Raising and contributing of campaign funds  Possibly most powerful action  Litigate  Turn to courts to attack acts, rules, regulations they feel are unfair to group

16.  Campaign finance reforms of 1970s prohibited corporations and labor unions from making direct contributions to candidates running for federal office  PACs are political arms of interest groups  Federal law regulates PACs  Must register w/ federal gov’t  Raise money from multiple contributors, donate to several candidates, follow strict accounting rules

17.  What PACs do  Give $$ directly to candidate’s campaigns – hard money  Closely regulated by Federal Election Commission  Give $$ to parties – soft money  Use $$ to create ads or messages for “issues” w/o specifically supporting a particular candidate  These expenditures are unregulated

18.  Federal Regulation of Lobbying Act (1946) requires lobbyists to register w/ clerk of HoR & secretary of Senate if principle purpose is to influence legislation  Directed at those who tried to influence members of Congress  1971 & 1974: Federal Election Campaign Acts were passed  Limits extent of contributions to presidential campaigns  Legitimized & increased number of interest groups b/c it authorized open participation  1976: Buckley v Valeo – limitations on individuals making donations in presidential elections were unconstitutional b/c matching public financing was involved  As result: McCain-Feingold campaign finance law & S Court decision… PACs are prohibited from donating soft $ to political parties or presidential candidates

19.  Lobbying Disclosure Act (1995): created stricter regulations by requires registration if lobbying was directed at members of Congress, congressional staff, or policymakers in executive branch  2008 – Obama issued additional regulations to prevent former lobbyists from receiving appointments to his administration  Lobby reform legislation passed in 2006 made lobbyists disclose how much $ they contributed & raised for candidates  Also made illegal gifts lobbyists could give to congressmen  Also required congressmen to disclose any earmarks they inserted in bills  Also slowed down how fast lawmakers could become lobbyists

20.  Public perception today  Relatively negative b/c of  Excessive sums spent to influence elections  Rapid creation of new interest groups – conflicts revolve around power of interest groups  Is their ability to donate huge amounts of $$ the decisive factor between those who influence policy and those ignored?  However, 4,600+ PACs means all kinds of groups and opinions have access to public officials  Interest groups run spectrum of political beliefs  Can be most effective way for citizens to make their voices heard by gov’t  Often hire professional representatives to lobby for their interests