1. (3) Contents Units and dimensions Vectors Motion in one dimension Laws of motion Work, energy, and momentum Electric current, potential, and Ohm's law Sound wave, velocity of sound, and Doppler effect Pressure and Archemedes' Principle and Pascal Law (4) Assessment Criteria Periodic Exams: 20% Oral, a student activity and Essay:10 % Laboratory Exam:20% Final Exam:50% Chapter 2 Vectors

2. 2.1 Coordinate Systems Many aspects of physics involve a description of a location in space. 1- The Cartesian coordinate system The Cartesian coordinate system is a system of intersecting perpendicular lines, which contains two principal axes, called the X- and Y-axis. The horizontal axis is usually referred to as the X-axis and the vertical the Y-axis The intersection of the X- and Y-axis forms the origin. Cartesian coordinate are also called rectangular coordinates Page 9

3. O y x (5,3) (-3,4) (x,y) Figure 3.1 Designation of points in a Cartesian coordinate system. Every point is labeled with coordinates (x,y) Page 9 horizontal axis Vertical axis perpendicular lines

4. 2- Polar Coordinates (r, θ ) Sometimes it is more convenient to represent a point in a plane by its plane polar coordinates ( r,θ ) as shown in Figure 3.2a. - r is the distance from the origin to the point having Cartesian coordinates (x,y) and - θ is the angle between a line drawn from the origin to the point and a fixed axis. This fixed axis is usually the positive x axis and θ is usually measured counterclockwise from it. y x 0 r ( x,y) Page 9

5. ry x sin θ = y / r cos θ = x / r tan θ = y / x y = r sinθ x = r cosθ θ = tan -1 (y/x) r = √x 2 + y 2 (b) y x O (x,y) r (a) Figure 3.2 θ θ Page 9

6. These four expressions relating the coordinates (x,y) to the coordinates (r, θ ) apply only when θ is defined as shown in Figure 3.2a – in other words, when positive θ is an angle measured counterclockwise from the positive x axis. - The vector is drawn as a point in the Cartesian coordinate system - The vector is drawn as a line in the Polar Coordinates Page 10

7. Example 3.1 Polar Coordinates The Cartesian Coordinates of a point in the xy plane are (x,y) = (-3.50,-2.50) m, as shown in Figure 3.3. Find the polar coordinates of this point. y(m) x(m) (-3.50, -2.50) r θ Page 10

8. 2.2 Vector and Scalar Quantities Some physical quantities are scalar quantities whereas others are vector quantities. 1-Scalar quantity: A scalar quantity is completely specified by a single value with an appropriate unit and has no direction. Example: temperature, volume, mass, speed and time. 2- Vector quantity: A vector quantity is completely specified by a number and appropriate units plus a direction. Example: velocity, displacement,force, acceleration and pressure. Page 10

9. - In this text they use a boldface letter, such as, A, to represent a vector quantity. - An other notation is useful when boldface notation is difficult, such as when writing on paper or on a board an arrow is written over the symbol for the vector A - The magnitude of the vector A is written either A or | A|. - The magnitude of the vector is always a positive number. Page 11

10. Quick Quiz 3.1 Which of the following are vector quantities and which are scalar quantities? a) your age scalar quantity b) acceleration vector quantity c) velocity vector quantity d) speed scalar quantity e) mass scalar quantity Page 11

11. Speed = Distance / time Velocity = Displacement / time 4 cm 2 cm 4 cm Speed = (4+2+4+2)/ t = 12/t Velocity = [(4+(-2)+(-4)+2]/t = 0

12. 2.3 Some Properties of Vectors 1- Equality of Two Vectors For many purposes, two vectors A and B may be defined to be equal if they have the same magnitude and point in the same direction. y x o Figure 3.5: These four vectors are equal because they have equal lengths and point in the same direction. A = B only if |A| = | B| and if A, B in the same direction Page 11 1-3

13. 2- Adding Vectors To add vector B to vector A, first draw vector A on graph paper, with its magnitude represented by a convenient length scale, and then draw vector B to the same scale with its tail starting from the tip of A, as shown in Figure 3.6 ( R = A+B ) A B R = A+B 2.3 Some Properties of Vectors Page 11 P:1

14. For the case of four vectors. The resultant vector R = A + B + C + D In other words R is the vector drawn from the tail of the first vector to the tip of the last vector A B C D R Figure 3.8 Page 11 P:3 L:2 Page 12

15. For example, if you walked 3.0m toward the east and then 4.0m toward the north as show in Figure 3.7.... Find the resultant vector and the direction? E N W S3.0 m 4.0 m A B C R Page 11 P: 2 Page 12

16. 3.0 m 4.0 m A B C R

17. The commutative law of addition A + B = B + A B B A A R Figure 3.9 ( 3.5 ) Page 12

18. The associative law of addition A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C A B C A+B (A+B)+C A B C B+C Figure 3.10 Page 12 ( 3.6 )

19. In summary, a vector quantity has both magnitude and direction and also obeys the laws of vector addition. When two or more vectors are added together, all of them must have the same units and all of them must be the same type of quantity. Page 12 P:3

20. 2.3 Some Properties of Vectors 3- Negative of a Vector The negative of the vector A is defined as the vector that when added to A gives zero for the vector sum. That is, A+ (-A) = 0. The vectors A and -A have the same magnitude but point in opposite directions. Page 12 - AA

21. 2.3 Some Properties of Vectors 4- Subtracting Vectors The operation of vector subtraction makes use of the definition of the negative of a vector. We define the operation A – B as vector -B added to vector A : A – B = A + (-B) (3.7) A -B C = A - B B Figure 3.11 a Page 13

22. 2.3 Some Properties of Vectors 4- Subtracting Vectors Another way of looking at vector subtracting is to note that the difference A – B between two vectors A and B is what you have to add to the second vector to obtain the first. In this case, the vector A-B points from the tip of the second vector to the tip of the first. A B C = A-B Figure 3.11 b Page 13

23. 2.3 Some Properties of Vectors 5- Multiplying a Vector by a Scalar - If vector A is multiplied by a positive scalar quantity m, then the product mA is a vector that has the same direction as A and magnitude mA. - If vector A is multiplied by a negative scalar quantity -m, then the product -mA is directed opposite A. For example, the vector 5A is five times as a long as A and points in the same direction as A, the vector -1/3 A is one -third the length of A and points in the direction opposite A. Page 14

24. 2.4 Components of a Vector and Unit Vectors In this section, we describe a method of adding vectors that makes use of the projections of vectors along coordinate axes. These projections are called the components of the vector. Any vector can be completely described by its components. Consider a vector A lying in the xy plane and making an angle with the positive x axis, as shown in Figure 3.13a. This vector can be expressed as the sum of two other vectors A x and A y. θ Page 14 P:1 L:2 A = A x + A y

25. y xo AxAx AyAy θ cos θ = A x / A sin θ = A y / A A x = A cos θ A y = A sin θ A = √ A x 2 A y 2 θ = tan -1 (A y A x ) Note that the signs of the components A x and depend on the angle. AyAy θ A Page 14

26. AxAx AxAx AxAx AxAx positive negative AyAy AyAy AyAy AyAy y x If θ = 225° For example If θ = 120° Page 14

27. Unit Vectors - A unit vector is a dimensionless vector having a magnitude of exactly1. - Unit vectors are used to specify a given direction and have no other physical significance. - They are used solely as a convenience in describing a direction in space. - We shall use the symbols î, ĵ and k to represent unit vectors pointing in the positive x, y and z directions respectively. Page 15 P:1 L:1-5

28. Unit Vectors - The unit vectors î, ĵ and k form a set of mutually perpendicular vectors in a right-handed coordinate system, as shown in Figure 3.16a. The magnitude of each unit vector equal 1 ; that is | î | = | ĵ | = | k | = 1. yy x z î ĵ k Figure 3.16a Page 15

29. Consider a vector A lying in the xy plane, as shown in Figure 3.16b. The product of the component A x and the unit vector î is the vector A x î, which lies on the x axis and has magnitude | A x |. Likewise A y ĵ is a vector of magnitude | | lying on the y axis. Thus the unit-vector notation for the vector A is A y A = A x î + A y ĵ (3.12) A AxîAxî A y ĵ x y Figure 3.16a Page 15

30. For example, consider a point lying in the xy plane and having Cartesian Coordinates (x,y),as in Figure 3.17. The point can be specified by the position vector r, which in unit-vector form is given by r = x î + y ĵ (3.13) This notation tells us that the components of r are the lengths x and y. y x o r (x,y ) Figure 3.17 Page 15

31. R = (A x + B x ) î + (A y + B y ) ĵ (3.14) R = (A x î + A y ĵ) + (B x î + B y ĵ) Because R = (R x î + R y ĵ), we see that the components of the resultant vector are R x = A x + B x R y = A y + B y (3.15) Suppose we wish to add vector B to vector A in Equation 3.12, where vector B has components B x and B y. All we do is add the x and y components separately. The resultant vector R = A+ B Page 15

32. R = √R x 2 + R y 2 =√ (A x + B x ) 2 + (A y + B y ) 2 (3.16) tan θ = (R y / R x ) = (A y + B y ) /(A x + B x ) (3.17) If A and B both have x,y and z components, we express them in the form A = A x î + A y ĵ + A z k (3.18) B = B x î + B y ĵ + B z k (3.19) Page 16

33. The sum of A and B is R = (A x + B x ) î + (A y + B y ) ĵ + (A z + B z ) k (3.20) R z = A z + B z R = √R x 2 + R y 2 + R z 2 Note that Equation 3.20 differs from Equation 3.14 ; in Equation 3.20, the resultant vector also has a z component The angle that R makes with the x axis is found from the expression cos θ x = R x / R ^ Similar for the angles Page 16

34. Example 3.3 The Sum of Two Vectors Find the sum of two vectors A and B lying in the xy plane and given by A = (2.0 î + 2.0 ĵ) m and B = (2.0 î – 4.0 ĵ) m R = A + B = ( 2.0 + 2.0) î m + (2.0 – 4.0) ĵ m = (4.0 î – 2.0 ĵ) m or R x = 4.0 m R y = -2.0 m

35. R 2 = R x 2 + R y 2 R 2 = (4.0 m) 2 + (-2.0 m) 2 = (20 m) R = 4.5 m tan = R y / R x = (-2.0 m / 4.0 m) = - 0.50

36. Example 3.4 The Resultant Displacement A particle undergoes three consecutive displacements: d 1 = (15 î + 30 ĵ + 12 k) cm, d 2 = (23 î -14 ĵ - 5.0 k) cm and d 3 = (- 13 î +15 ĵ ) cm. Find the components of the resultant displacement and its magnitude. ^^ R = d 1 + d 2 + d 3 = ( 15 + 23 - 13) î cm + ( 30 - 14 +15) ĵ cm + (12 - 5.0+ 0) ĸ ^^ ^ R = ( 25 î + 31 ĵ +7.0 ĸ ) cm ^

38. Homework Answer the following questions What is (12,5) in Polar Coordinates? What is (13, 22.6°) in Cartesian Coordinates?

40. There are two kinds of coordinate systems …………………………….., ………………………. The horizontal axis is usually referred to as the …………….. axis and the vertical to the ……………. axis. The intersection of the X- and Y-axis forms the …………………… Cartesian coordinate are also called ………………………… The vector is drawn as a ………………………… in the Cartesian coordinate system The vector is drawn as a …………………… in the Polar Coordinates The magnitude of the vector A is written as …………………… and the magnitude of the vector is always a …………………….. number. Any vector can be completely described by its ……………… Complete the sentences

41. A unit vector is defined as ……………………………………… Unit vector are used solely as a convenience in describing a …………… in space We use the symbols …………….. and ……………….. to represent unit vectors pointing in the ……………, ………………, ……………….. directions respectively. The unit vector notation for the vector A is ………………………… and for the vector r is …………………….. The resultant vector of two vectors A and B is R = …………. or R = ( ………..) i + (…………..) j or R = ( ….. i +……. j) + ( ….. i +……. j) or R = ……..i + ………j

42. Compare between the Cartesian Coordinates and the Polar Coordinates Polar CoordinateCartesian Coordinate

43. Which of the following are vector quantities and which are scalar quantities? a)your age b) acceleration c) velocity d) speed e) mass Find the sum of two vectors A and B lying in the xy plane and given by A = (3.0 î + 2.0 ĵ) m and B = (4.0 î – 6.0 ĵ) m

44. Complete the table

45. The End of The Chapter

46. Example 3.5 Taking a Hike A hiker begins a trio by first walking 25.0 km southeast from her car. She stops and sets up her tent for the night. On the second day, she walks 40.0km in a direction 60.0° north of east, at which point the discovers a forest ranger's tower. (A) Determine the components of the hiker's displacement for each day. (B) Determine the components of the hiker's resultant displacement R for the trip. Find an expression for R in terms of unit vectors.

47. Example 3.6 Let's Fly Away ! A commuter airplane takes the route shown in Figure 3.20. First, it flies from the origin of the coordinate system shown to city A, located 175 km in a direction 30.0° north of east. Next, it flies 153 km 20.0° west of north to city B. Finally, it flies 195 km due west to city C. Find the location of city C relative to the origin.

48. Example: 1- What is (12,5) in Polar Coordinates? Answer: the point (12,5) is (13, 22.6°) in Polar Coordinates. 2- What is (13, 22.6°) in Cartesian Coordinates? Answer: the point (13, 22.6°) is almost exactly (12, 5) in Cartesian Coordinates.