1. Dr. Wayne E. Wright Royal University of Phnom Penh

2. Purpose of This Book Provide a knowledge base about education policy How it is made How it can be influenced Prepare Educational Leaders for the 21 st Century

3. Defining Policy Policy comes from field of political science A deeply divided field Many debates and controversies Many definitions of policy Depends on views of The nature of society Meaning of power Proper role of government

4. Definition of Public Policy In this book and course, Public Policy defined as follows: Public policy is the dynamic and value-laden process through which a political system handles a public problem. Includes a government’s Expressed intensions Official enactments Consistent patterns of activity and inactivity

5. Definition of Public Policy Government includes: Elected and appointed officials Federal (national), state (provincial), and local (district, village) levels The bodies or agencies within which these officials work Includes teachers and school administrators, and other school leaders in government schools and education agencies

6. Relationship Between Public Policy and Various Aspects of Government Activity Policy and Expressed Government Intentions Law Rules and Regulations Court Decisions Budgets Implementation Government Action and Inaction

7. Policy and Expressed Government Intentions Policy may be understood through expressed government intentions Politics is about communication Written Spoken Government Officials communicate frequently Speeches Talk shows on radio and television Decisions in hearings and reports Newspaper articles/interviews Memos and other documents But expressed intentions not enough to determine what a government’s policy is

8. Policy and Law Policy may be determined through official laws Statutes Laws enacted by legislatures Written law provides important clues about public policy But law and policy are not the same thing Many laws are outdated and ignored Many laws are only symbolic Not every policy appears in statutes Many are based on past practice “de-facto” policy Written law not enough to determine government policy

9. Policy, and Rules and Regulations Most statutes are worded in very broad, general terms Not enough detail to put them into practice Rules and Regulations are created by government agencies to provide details on how to put a statute into practice Broadly worded regulations give educators flexibility Narrowly worded rules and regulations give educators very little flexibility Some rules and regulations address issues not included in official statutes Rules and Regulations give important clues about government policy But not always enough to determine actual policies

10. Policy and Court Decisions In the U.S., courts have the power to review statutes to determine if they are constitutional Courts can overturn decisions made by previous courts Court decisions are called case law Case Law provides important clues about government policy But not sufficient to determine actual policy Leaders might resist, ignore, or not fully comply with court rulings

11. Policy and Budgets Most government agencies adopt budgets In legislatures One committee creates the statutes Another committee decides how much money to provide for its implementation Two battles occur over the passage of a statute A battle over words A battle over dollars The amount of money a government spends on a statute over time provides important clues for policy priorities of the government

12. Policy and Implementation Policies are made at the top of the political system Policies are implemented by those at the bottom Superintendents, principals, teachers, and staff members Educators are not robots that mechanically carry out orders Educators are humans with their own brains Make decisions based on the social and cultural contexts they are in They understand these much better than the policy makers at the top (e.g., presidents/prime ministers, government leaders, judges, etc.) Policies are always altered during implementation Educators may make minor adjustments or major changes Real policy is how the policy is actually implemented Determine this through Observations, conversations with those who implement the policies

13. Policy and Government Action or Inaction The true nature of a policy may be determined by an analysis of government action and inaction Government action Expressed attention Statutes Increased Funding Active monitoring for compliance Government Inaction Doing nothing Decrease or eliminate funding Doing opposite of official policy

14. Transformation of the Education Policy Environment In the U.S. there has been a big change in the Education Policy Environment Before the 1980s Public Schools well respected Education leaders and teachers given autonomy and flexibility Adequate funding Since the 1980s Political leaders frequently criticize and distrust public schools, education leaders, and teachers Policies designed to tightly control public schools Efforts to support more private schools Inadequate funding

15. Reasons for the Changes in the Policy Environment Economic Changes Slow economic growth Citizens resist paying taxes “No New Taxes” mentality 9/11/2001 Terrorist attacks in U.S. More funding for military and homeland security than education Richer are getting richer, poor are getting poorer Unequal and inadequate school funding Educating poor children costs more money than educating rich children, but poor children usually attend the poorest schools

16. Reasons for the Changes in the Policy Environment Demographic (Population) Changes More older people (baby-boomers) with no young children Don’t want to pay more taxes to support schools Little political support for schools Increasing diversity U.S. is becoming more multicultural Racial, ethnic, religious, linguistic differences Diversity enriches a society But many find it threatening Challenges for schools to provide quality education for diverse students One size can’t fit all

17. Reasons for the Changes in the Policy Environment Ideological Shift Focus of educational policy used to be on equality issues E.g., ensuring all students have equal educational opportunities Now the focus is on excellence, accountability, and choice Business leaders have had a lot of influence on school system Criticize schools as “broken” Want schools run like businesses

18. Changed Roles of School Leaders In the past school leaders did not have to worry much about issues outside of their own schools More power and authority to run schools their own way Now, more power has been given to state education agencies, and local leaders have less power Local leaders must now pay a lot of attention to state and federal policy Work with state and federal leaders and fight for changes Work with other local community and business leaders to support their schools Must understand the Policy Process

19. The Policy Process The Policy Process is the sequence of events that occur when a political system considers different approaches to a public problems, adopts one of them, tries it out, and evaluates it. Game metaphor Like a game, the policy process is Has rules and players Complex Disorderly Played in many arenas Involves use of power Has winners and losers

20. The Policy Process Policy Issues A policy issue is controversial An issue only exists because different social groups disagree about how the government should approach a given problem Most educational policies are not policy issues Example: Today everyone agrees that all children should attend school and all need to learn read, write, and do math In past in the U.S., this was a policy issue Many believed only wealthy children had the right to learn to read and write Slaves, Native Americans were not allowed to attend schools in some states A policy issue must be a problem that the government can address legitimately Many disagreements about how children should be socialized, but these are not policy issues Example: The government would not make a policy about children playing with toy guns Private problem that should be addressed by families

21. The Classic Policy Process Stage Model See Figure 1.1 (p. 15) Stage Model Issue Definition Agenda Setting Policy Formation Policy Adoption Implementation Evaluation Heavy Arrows pointing right Traditional view of the policy process Light arrows point left Sometimes a policy advances but then moves back to a previous stage Funnel Shape Not all issues make it all the way through At each stage, fewer issues or policies are involved In reality, the process is much more complex and messy But classic model still a useful framework for understanding the basic process

22. The Policy Process Issue Definition Issue Definition There are many social problems Only a few are identified as public policy problems The government only chooses some issues to try and develop policy Must have sufficient political support Costs must not be too high Example Standards-Based reform was not an issue until the 1980s Concerns among public, community, and political leaders made it in issue Chapter 7 will focus on Issue Definition

23. The Policy Process Agenda Setting Not every problem defined as an education policy issue is acted upon by the government Issue must be placed on the “Policy Agenda” The list of subjects or problems to which government officials are paying serious attention Example: Standards-Based Reform added to the national policy agenda in the 1980s Secretary of Education and president made it a priority Meeting of state governors created a set of education goals, Established a panel of experts and leaders to address these goals Chapter 7 focuses on Agenda Setting

24. The Policy Process Policy Formation Policy must be created in written form before it can be formally adopted Bill – a draft of a proposed statute for the legislature to consider Bills written by legislator, their staff, or public advocacy groups. Sponsored and introduced by a legislator Rival bills typically introduced Example Bills passed and statutes written to support national educational goals (e.g., Goals 2000, No Child Left Behind) Chapter 8 focuses on Policy Formation

25. The Policy Process Policy Adoption Before a policy can take effect, the written policy must be adopted officially by the appropriate government body E.g., a bill is approved by the legislature After a bill is adopted (approved), rules and regulations are written Example: Bills passed in support of Goals 2000, No Child Left Behind Rules and regulations written to tell educators how to implement these new policies Chapter 8 focuses on policy adoption

26. The Policy Process Implementation Just because a statute and rules and regulations are created, doesn’t mean it is automatically implemented Policies must be implemented at the “grassroots” level (e.g., local education leaders, administrators, teachers). Often times they are not happy with new policies Educators must be motivated to implement the new policies New policies must be adequately funded Policies are always changed in some way by those who implement them Example: Many local education and school leaders and teacher are opposed to some of the rules and regulations of standards-based reform Federal and State governments use many punishments and rewards to force local educators to comply with the rules Chapter 10 focuses on policy implementation

27. The Policy Process Evaluation Ideally, a policy should be evaluated to determine if its working the way its supposed to Evaluation is a form of applied research designed to determine if a policy or program is working properly Evaluations might be conducted by The government Outside consultants University researchers Think Tanks Evaluations may be biased if conducted by those who have a vested interest E.g., the government agency in charge of the policy may be biased to show that its policy is working An outside consultant might be making money off of the policy and thus will want to show that it is working Example Standards-Based Reform has not been evaluated properly to know if it is really working or not Chapter 11 focuses on Evaluation

28. The School Leader and Policy Studies Administrators as Policy Makers Develop policies, rules and regulations for their own schools Administrators as Implementers of Policy Expected to create plans to carry out policies issued from higher levels of government Provide resources to implement the policy Monitor the implementation Administrators as Followers of Policy Issues Cannot just think and work within the walls of their own school Must be aware of policy issues locally, nationally, and globally that can and will affect their schools Must be knowledgeable in order to be effective school leaders Administrators as Influencers of Policy Are in a position to influence policymakers at higher levels Give opinions, data, feedback Fight for policies that are more effective and equitable

29. Final Point Today’s school leaders have a different role than they did in the past. Effective public leadership in the 21 st Century requires a solid foundation of knowledge about education policy and how it is developed and changed This book and course will provide that foundation