1. Impact of Secondary Schooling on Malnutrition and Fertility Syed Rashed Al Zayed, Yaniv Stopnitzky, Qaiser Khan

2. Introduction ► This paper examines the role of secondary education on the fertility rate and levels of chronic malnutrition among children under five years of age in Bangladesh.

3. Introduction (Cont.) ► Early research attributes fertility decline to the rise in contraceptive use and efficacy of FP programs. (e.g. Bongaarts and Potter, 1983) ► Recent research shows that changes in socio-economic status alter the cost/benefit ratio faced by households, and leads parents to have less children (e.g. Bongaarts, 2005, Olfa and Lahga (undated)). ► In Becker and Lewis (1973) an economic theory of family views children as a durable commodity and predicts that increased socio economic status of the mother increases the opportunity cost of raising a child (Olfa and Lahga, (undated)).

4. Contraceptive Prevalence, Knowledge of Modern Contraceptive, Level of Education and Fertility Rate Sources: BDHS 2004, BANBEIS 2002 26 33 34 47 53 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 1975198019851990199119931994199720002004 Percentage of Women Share of female students over boys Contraceptive Prevalence 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 N of Live Births Fertility Rate Knowledge of Modern

5. Introduction (Cont.) ► Current Scenario in Bangladesh  Latest data show a slight decline in fertility rate (from 3.3 to 3.0) after almost a decade-long plateau. [DHS 2004]  During the stalled period ► Contraceptive prevalence continued to rise (from around 44% in 1995 to 51 in 2004) [DHS 2004] ► Knowledge of contraceptives is almost universal  There has been a sharp increase in levels of woman’s education during 90s has been experienced (male enrolment rates also increased from 34 in 1990 to 53 in 2002). [BANBEIS 2002]

6. How Education Affects Fertility: An Economic Model Education FertilityInformation on advantages of small family size, contraception and future benefits Direct Effect Demand for Quality Cost Increased Age at Marriage and Age at first Birth Wage Increase Opportunity Cost Increased Labor Participation Indirect Effect

7. Fertility Rate by Level of Wealth and Education Source: Author’s Calculation using DHS 2004 1 2 2 3 3 4 PoorestPoorerMiddleRicherRichest Live Births per Woman No educationPrimarySecondaryHigher

8. Fertility Rate by Level of Wealth and Education Source: Author’s Calculation using DHS 2004

9. Intention to Contraceptive Use by Level of Education Source: Author’s Calculation using DHS 2004

10. Age At First Marriage and Age at First Birth By Wealth Index and Education Source: Author’s Calculation using DHS 2004 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 12345 Level of Education and Wealth Index Years

11. Table: Contact With Family Planning Workers Health Workers by N of Living Children and Location N of Living Child Visited by a FP Worker Visited by a Health Worker PercentPercent 060.5 113.33.9 217.94.1 318.13.2 4+14.63.3 Rural16.63.7 Urban9.62.2 Source: Author’s Calculation using DHS 2004

12. Trends in Nutritional Status of Children Under Five Source: DHS 2004

13. Percentage of stunting and under weight children by level of mother’s education and wealth status of the family Source: Author’s Calculation using DHS 2004

14. Econometrics: Fertility (Cont.) Regression Results Dependent Variable: N of Live BirthsCoefficientSignificance Level Interaction Between Primary Education and Level of Wealth (Primary Dummy*Poverty Dummy)Negative95% Interaction Between Secondary Education and Level of Wealth (Secondary Dummy*Poverty Dummy)Zero Primary (Dummy)Negative95% Secondary (Dummy)Negative95% Interaction Between Primary Education and FP Visit (Primary Dummy*FP Visit Dummy)Zero Interaction Between Secondary Education and FP Visit (Secondary Dummy*FP Visit Dummy)Zero FP Visit (Dummy - whether visited Ever by a FP Worker)Zero Poverty (Dummy - whether Hh is in the lowest 40%)Negative90% Married after 16 (Dummy)Negative90% Age at First BirthNegative95% Husband's Fertility Preference (Dummy)Positive95% Work Status of the Woman (Dummy)Negative95% Access to Tv (Dummy)Negative95%

15. Econometrics: Malnutrition (Cont.) Probit Regression Results (Only the important Variables) Dependent Variable: Stunt Dummy (Whether the child is stunting or not)CoefficientSignificance Level Age of the ChildPositive95% Interaction Between Primary Education and Level of Wealth (Primary Dummy*Poverty Dummy) Statistically Zero Interaction Between Secondary Education and Level of Wealth (Secondary Dummy*Poverty Dummy) Statistically Zero Primary (Dummy)Negative90% Secondary (Dummy)Negative95% Poverty Dummy1 (whether Hh is in the lowest 20%)Positive95% Poverty Dummy2 (whether Hh is in the lowest 40%) Statistically Zero Poverty Dummy3 (whether Hh is in the lowest 60%) Statistically Zero Poverty Dummy4 (whether Hh is in richest quintile)Negative95%

16. Conclusions ► Summary findings  Mother’s education significantly reduces fertility rate and malnutrition of under-five children.  Secondary education of the mother has the largest effect on fertility. A secondary educated mother is more likely to have less children, irrespective of her wealth status.  In the case of malnutrition, wealth status has significant effect only in extreme cases (i.e., only upon the poorest ones and the richest).  Secondary education of a mother significantly reduces the probability of a child to be malnourished, irrespective of the wealth status of the family.  Mother’s education (secondary level) has the largest effect upon both malnutrition and fertility.

17. Conclusion (Cont.) ► Policy recommendations  Demand intervention through education ► Education (especially female secondary) should be considered as the key policy option to achieve the MDGs on fertility and malnutrition in Bangladesh. ► Secondary curriculum should include more information on benefits of having small family size, contraception methods, disadvantages of early marriage, ideal nutritional behavior and child and maternal health.  Supply intervention/ FP Programs ► Above recommendations do not suggest stopping or reducing FP programs or other awareness-raising activities that are currently in place.