1. Technician License Course Chapter 2 Radio and Electronics Fundamentals
Signals and Waves Hour-3

2. Radio Waves are AC
You have already learned that in an alternating current (ac) the electrons flow in one direction one moment and then the opposite direction the next moment.
Radio waves (electromagnetic radiation) are ac waves.
Radio waves are used to carry the information you want to convey to someone else.

3. Wave Vocabulary
Before we study radio waves, we need to learn some wave vocabulary.
Amplitude
Frequency
Period
Wavelength
Harmonics
Spend some time with live demonstration to make sure the students are really familiar with the concepts and vocabulary of waves. These demonstrations could include using audio frequency generator connected to a speaker and oscilloscope to allow students to hear a audio sine wave and see the wave. This will allow you to point out the differenced between amplitude and frequency, the relationship between frequency and wavelength, the relationship between frequency and period.

4. Now for a Powerful Demonstration
What happens when you drop a magnet through a non-ferrous conductive pipe?
This is a powerful demonstration that will help your students understand radio waves and perhaps be better able to visualize how radio waves travel. For this demonstration you will need a length of common copper pipe and PVC pipe and a very strong slug magnet. Try as a source of magnets. Their number 10 magnet, a cylinder about 5/8 inch in diameter is a good size. The pipes should be sufficient diameter to allow the magnet to pass through, ¾ inch pipe should work.
Talk with the students about the concept of magnetism and magnetic fields. Talk with the students about electric current. Demonstrate that the magnetic is in fact a magnet by having it stick to a ferrous metal. Demonstrate that the magnet does not stick to the copper or PVC pipe and explain why.
Pose the question. Have the students predict what will happen then have each drop the magnet through the pipe to test their hypothesis. (the magnet falls slowly through the copper pipe, falls right through the PVC) Discuss what the students observe.
What you are demonstrating is the two fundamental principles of electronics:
Any time a magnetic field moves, it causes electrons with the vicinity of the field to move.
Any time an electron moves, it creates a magnetic field.
So what is happening is that the moving magnet (field) causes electrons in the copper to mover. Those moving electrons in the pipe in turn create an opposing magnetic field that prevents the magnet from falling right through. The magnet falls right through the PVC because the PVC is an insulator…no electrons allowed to move therefore no opposing magnetic field.

5. How Radio Waves Travel
You have just witnessed in a way how radio waves travel.
Moving electrons in the antenna create a magnetic field.
This changing magnetic field creates an electric field.
Then back and forth between magnetic and electric fields from point A to point B.

6. Wavelength The distance a radio wave travels during one cycle.
One complete change between magnetic and electric fields.
This is the time to talk about the mathematical relationship between frequency and wavelength. Go over a few practice problems using examples of test questions. Give some problems for homework that are the test questions.

7. Finding Where You are on the Radio Dial
There are two ways to tell someone where to meet you on the radio dial (spectrum).
Band
Frequency

8. Radio Frequency (RF) Spectrum
The RF spectrum is the range of wave frequencies which will leave an antenna and travel through space.
The RF spectrum is divided into segments of frequencies that basically have unique behavior.
Each segment division of frequencies will act the same, for instance, short range, reflect off similar surfaces, interact with the ionosphere the same way, etc.

9. Radio Frequency (RF) Spectrum
Point out on the diagram where familiar signals are located like AM/FM commercial radio, police and fire channels, TV, satellite TV. Point out how each segment acts differently from adjacent segments. Don’t be afraid to tell them that it isn’t that simple, that the lines between segments sometimes are a little fuzzy, that is part of the fun of radio.

10. So, Where Am I? Back to how to tell where you are in the spectrum.
Bands identify the segment of the spectrum where you will operate.
Wavelength is used to identify the band.
Frequencies identify specifically where you are within the band.
Give some real examples on how to articulate where to meet someone. I.e., I’ll be on 2 meters this evening, on a frequency of …see you there.
Twenty meters is open to Europe today, listen for the rare station on frequency MHz.

11. Another Use for Frequency and Wavelength
For the station antenna to efficiently send the radio wave out into space, the antenna must be designed for the specific operating frequency.
The antenna length needs to closely match the wavelength of the frequency to be used.
Any mismatch between antenna length and frequency wavelength will result in radio frequency energy being reflected back to the transmitter, not going (being emitted) into space.
Note that this statement is a generalization and there are a million exceptions, just go with it for instructional purposes and point out that in the beginning, many over generalizations must be made to facilitate understanding. Once the student understands the basic concepts, then the true complexity of radio and in particular antenna theory can be explored.

12. Antennas are Part Capacitor – Part Inductor – Part Resistor
Antennas actually have characteristics of capacitor, inductor and resistor electronic components.
Capacitors and inductors, because they store energy in fields, react differently to ac than dc.
Special kind of resistance to the flow of ac – called reactance.
This is going to be a big jump for some students. The concepts of reactance and resonance is difficult for even the most experienced hams let alone the new ham. If your students appear to be struggling during the discussion, point out that your main goal is for them to have just a fundamental understanding of the concepts and the vocabulary involved here.

13. Resonance
Because capacitors and inductors store energy in different ways, the stored energy can actually cancel each other under the right conditions.
Capacitors – electric field
Inductors – magnetic field
Cancelled current = no reactance, just leaving resistance.

14. Resonant Antenna
If an antenna is designed correctly, the capacitive reactance cancels the inductive reactance.
Theoretically, the resulting reactance is zero.
Leaving only resistance – meaning minimum impediment to the flow of the radio frequency currents flowing in the antenna and sending the radio wave into space.
Talk here about the design of the basic dipole antenna. Use the wavelength formula to calculate the length of a ¼ wave vertical for two meters and then compare that calculation to a commercially produced antenna.

15. Adding Information - Modulation
Now that we know where we are in the RF spectrum and are sending a radio wave into space.
When we imprint some information on the radio wave, we modulate the wave.
Turn the wave on and off
Voice AM and FM
Data
Different modulation techniques are called modes.
You now need to make the jump from the discussion of radio spectrum and antenna resonance to the concept of modulation. The important concept here is understanding that modulation is imprinting information on the carrier radio wave. There are different ways to do this imprinting, those different ways are called modes.

16. Morse Code – On and Off

17. Amplitude Modulation (AM)
In AM, the amplitude of the carrier wave is modified in step with the waveform of the information (voice).
The ARRL modulation board is an excellent resource that can be used to demonstrate the concept of modulation. This board uses amplitude modulation and demodulation circuits along with an oscilloscope to visually depict what happens during modulation.

18. Characteristics of Voice AM
AM signals consist of three components:
Carrier
Lower sideband
Upper sideband
Voice bandwidth is from 300 Hz to 3 kHz.
AM bandwidth is twice the voice bandwidth.

19. Characteristics of Voice
Sound waves that make up your voice are a complex mixture of multiple frequencies.
When this complex mixture is embedded on a carrier, two sidebands are created that are mirror images.

20. Single Sideband Modulation (SSB)
Since voice is made up of identical mirror image sidebands:
We can improve efficiency of transmission by transmitting only one sideband and then reconstruct the missing sideband at the receiver.

21. Frequency Modulation (FM)
Instead of varying amplitude, if we vary the frequency in step with the information waveform – FM is produced.
FM signals are much more resistant to the effects of noise but require more bandwidth.
FM bandwidth (for voice) is between 5 and 15 kHz.
Discuss the concept of deviation, the amount of frequency change from the center frequency determines the volume of the transmitted information (percent modulation). Discuss what happens if you over deviate. Also discuss that FM can also be produced by varying the phase of the carrier, but this it is hard to distinguish between PM and FM so it isn’t particularly important for the new ham.
Here is a good place to talk about the advantages and disadvantages of the different forms of modulation.

22. Transmitting Data Data is made up of binary bits 1 and 0.
On and off states
Modems translate the data into a format capable modulating a carrier wave.
A terminal node controller (TNC) is a specialized modem used in ham radio.
There are many more kinds of modems developed as data transmission technology advances.

23. Basic Data Transmission Setup