2. Author(s)Donald D. Hammill & Stephen C. Larsen,(1996) defined Written Language as : “The term written language refers to the comprehension and expression of thought through the use of character, letter, or words that are etched,traced or formed on the surface of some material. Written language is commonly considered to be one of the two principle manifestations of language, the other been spoken language”(p 1)

3. ABOUT o TOWL – 4 th Edition was published in 2009.The author(s) are Donald D. Hammill and Stephen C. Larsen o TOWL -4 th Edition TOWL -4 is a norm- reference, comprehensive diagnostic test of written expression, which uses both essay format and traditional test to assess aspects of written language. o It is based on age and grade norms. o It can be administer and interpreted by individuals who have formal training in assessment and written language development. o It can be administered individually or in groups. o It can be used with children and youth between ages 9 to 17 years o It takes 60 to 90 minutes to complete

4. PURPOSE o To identify students who have written language difficulty. o To identify strengths and weaknesses of individual students. o To monitor students progress. o To conduct research.

5. TOWL – 4 consists of two writing formats ( Contrived and Spontaneous).These two writing formats assess three vital parts of written language and are represented in each subtest. o Conventional :Punctuation and Spelling. o Linguistic: Syntactic and Sematic structures. o Cognitive: “Logical, coherent and contextual written material”.( Hammill & Larsen,2008. p.25) The contrived and spontaneous formats each contain seven subtest, which are : o Vocabulary o Spelling o Punctuation o Logical Sentence o Sentence Combining o Contextual Conventions o Story Composition

6. TOWL -4 Subsets  Vocabulary measure knowledge of word meaning and classes through the writing of meaningful sentence that incorporates a stimulus word.  Spelling measures the ability to spell dictated words properly. The student writes sentences from dictation,taking particular care to make proper use of spelling rules  Punctuation measures the ability to use the graphic signs required to signal important grammatical and attitudinal contrast in contextual print.The student write sentences from dictation, taking particular care to make proper use of punctuation and capitalization  Logical Sentences measures the ability to recognize and correct through rewriting the illogicalities existing in stimulus sentences. The student edits an illogical so it makes better sense.

7.  Sentence Combining measures the ability to incorporate the meanings of several sentences into a comprehensive single sentence containing embedded phrases, introductory clauses, adjective sequences, and so on. The student integrates the meaning of several short sentences into one grammatically correct written sentence.  Story Composition measures the ability to write in a logical, organized fashion; to generate a specified theme or plot; to develop a character’s personality; to employ an interesting and engaging prose; and to use mature and appropriate vocabulary. The student’s story is evaluated relative to the quality of its vocabulary, plot, prose, development of characters, and interest to the reader

8. Composite Scores:  Overall Writing –Evaluates students writing skills using the spontaneous and contrived format.  Contrived Writing –Evaluates students writing skills using the contrived format.  Spontaneous Writing – Evaluates spontaneously composed essay

9. Reliability Strength Correlating alternate forms of a test provides a reliability index that can be used to estimate content sampling error. The means and standard deviations for the two forms are similar at every age interval. Time sampling (test-retest) is a measure of the constancy of a student’s test performance over time. The TOWL-3 evidences a high degree of reliability because it has good interscorer reliability, little test error, and test users can have confidence in their results.

10. Analysis was performed that demonstrated evidence of little or no item bias for three groups: White/non-white, male/female, and Hispanic/non-Hispanic Of the subtests, Spelling demonstrated the highest correlations in terms of test-retest reliability, interscorer reliability, and criterion-related validity. Validity Strength

11. Weaknesses Administration time is lengthy, approximately 90 minutes. Many students had difficulty writing for 5 minutes, yet they are given 15minutes. There are no explicit directions to use a process approach to the task, and student with written communication difficulties may become frustrated.

12. Reference Assessment Tools(TOWL-4): Test of Written Language –Fourth Edition http://www.spedsg.com/assessment ATP: Test of Written Language -4(TOWL-4) http:// www.academictherapy.com TOWL-4 (Test of Written Language,4 th Ed.) http:// www4.parinc.com/Product-TOWL John Salvia, James E. Ysseldyke, and Sara Bolt (2011). Assessment in Special Education and Inclusive Education(11 th Edition) Davis Drive, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning Test of Written Language –Fourth Edition (TOWL-4) http://www.dysphiaplus.com