1. Recovery and Rebirth: The Age of the Renaissance

2. Map of Europe 1500

3. Timeline of Major Events
1428-Italy-Florence-Masaccio perfects law of perspective
1434-Italy-Florence-Cosimo Medici comes to control oligarchy in Florence
1447-Italy-Milan-Francesco Sforza takes control of Milan
England-War of the Roses
Italy-Leonardo da Vinci
1453-Byzantine-Fall of Constantinople to Ottoman Turks
1455-Germany-Mainz-Guttenberg’s printing press, creates Guttenberg’s Bible
1463-France-Italy-Charles VIII invades Italy, brings down Medicis
Italy-Michelangelo-Sistine Chapel

4. Timeline Continued
Spain-Cardinal urges Ferdinand & Isabella - Spanish Inquisition
Raphael-frescoes at Vatican
1490-Italy-Oration of Dignity of Man by Mirandola
1493-Holy Roman-Maximillian I
1494-Italy-Florence-French expelled Medicis from Florence
1509-England-Henry VIII succeeded the English thrown
1511-England-The Praise of Folly by Erasmus
1513-Italy-The Prince by Machiavelli
1516-Spain-Charles V becomes Charles I of Spain
1527-Italy-Charles V sacks Rome

5. Important People Leon Battista Alberti -Florentine architect,
Lorenzo de Medici -head of famous Florentine family caused its financial downfall
Baldassare Castiglione -Italian writer, The Book of the Courtier - the handbook of Euro. Aristocrats
Francesco Sforza - a leading condottieri [mercenary leader], became Duke of Milan in 1447
Cosimo de Medici -in 1434 controlled Florence oligarchy
Charles VIII - French King in 1494 invaded Naples, brings down Medicis
Michelangelo -painter, sculptor, architect, famous for the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel
Ferdinand and Isabella -union of Spanish kingdoms of Aragón and Castile in due to their marriage

6. People continued
Leonardo da Vinci -great Italian artist, inventor, best example of the “Renaissance man”
Mirandola -wrote Oration on the Dignity of Man, one of the most famous writings of the Renaissance
Erasmus -Dutch writer, scholar, and humanist
Niccolo Machiavelli - Exiled from Florence, wrote The Prince (1513)
Charles V -Charles I-Sacks Rome in 1527, brought end to Italian wars and Renaissance
Henry VIII -English King, leaves the Catholic church eventually creating the Church of England
Sandro Botticelli - painted Primavera, well defined figures not common in Early Renaissance art
Donatello -Italian sculptor famous for David
Raphael -Italian artist known for Vatican frescos, and Madonna
Maximillian I -became Holy Roman Emperor in 1493
Johannes Gutenberg -German printer and pioneer in the use of movable type

7. Vocabulary
Condottieri -leaders of bands of mercenaries, hired to protect various city-states
Courtier -An attendant at a sovereign's court
Hanseatic League -alliance of Western European merchants and towns joined for security
Papal States -territory of Italy formerly under direct temporal rule of the pope
Heresy -any religious doctrine opposed to the beliefs of a particular church
Taille -A form of direct royal taxation that was levied in France on the lower classes
Black Death -the bubonic plague
Humanism -philosophy that emphasizes the dignity and worth of the individual

8. Charts
The evolving Italian city- states

9. Women of the Renaissance
The family was very important, women had arranged marriages to strengthen business and family ties
Dowry was payment from women’s family at marriage, they had no control over their own dowry
The women managed the household and had autonomy in daily lives
Apart from a few wealthy noble women the majority of women had no power which was above males
Denied access to Universities and most occupations

10. Importance
The beginning of humanism which concentrated on the significance of human activity, learning, and bettering one’s self, spawned individualism. This thought was incorporated into all aspects of the social lives of the upper classes.
Educational Advancement-humanism helped set the ground work for “Liberal Studies” education system for elite class
Printing Press-encouraged scholarly research and learning, use of the vernacular
Humanist ideas began the first questionings of the Catholic Church

11. Ch. 14: The Age of Reformation!

13. Timeline 1517: Luther posted 95 Theses
1519: Zwingli began church reform in Zurich, Switzerland
1520: Pope Leo X excommunicated Luther
1522: Luther began church reform in Saxony
: German peasants revolt hoping for Luther’s support, but did not receive it
1534: Act of Supremacy by Henry VIII declared the king (not the pope) as the head of the English Church

14. Timeline
: Henry VIII and Parliament dissolved the English monasteries
1539: Parliament approved the Six Articles which defined the doctrine of the English Church
1540: Pope Paul III authorized the Society of Jesus (Jesuits)
: Council of Trent: assembly formed to define Roman Catholic doctrine, initiate reforms, and strengthen the authority of the pope
1551: The 42 Articles of English Church made it more Protestant because affected by Calvinist ideas

15. Timeline
1555: Peace of Augsburg gave each German prince the right to determine the religion (Catholicism or Lutheranism) of his state
1559: New Act of Supremacy and Uniformity under Elizabeth I repealed Mary’s pro-Catholic laws
1560: Presbyterianism became official religion of Scotland
1563: 39 Articles adopted, which defined the teachings of the Anglican Church

16. Important People
Martin Luther questioned the doctrines of the Catholic Church, specifically indulgences. He refused to recant his 95 theses, was excommunicated, and began Lutheranism.
Frederick of Saxony sheltered Luther and supported him in his reforms of the church.
Ulrich Zwingli broke way from the Catholic Church in Switzerland and began the Swiss Reformation
John Calvin was influenced by Luther and continued the Protestant Reformation by introducing Calvinism to Geneva.

17. Important People John Knox brought Calvinism to Scotland.
King Henry VIII established the state-controlled Anglican Church (Church of England).
Thomas More was Lord Chancellor to Henry VII who opposed the Act of Supremacy and was executed.
Thomas Munzer: German anabaptist that wanted to overthrow religious political and social order
John of Leyden: head of a theocratic government in Germany that endorsed polygamy

18. Important People
Queen Mary tried to restore Roman Catholicism to England and earned the title “Bloody Mary” by persecuting Protestants
Queen Elizabeth sought religious settlement in England through compromise
Ignatius Loyola founded the Jesuits and fought for the Catholic Church against the spread of Protestantism.
Erasmus wrote “In Praise of Folly” which criticized the ethics of the Catholic Church

19. Vocabulary
Lutheranism: Bible is the only valid source for doctrine. Baptism and holy communion are the only sacraments. Celibacy not required for Clergy.
Calvinism: agreed with Luther about the Bible and the sacraments. Believed in predestination
Predestination: Calvinistic belief that God has already determined those who are saved and those who are damned.
Anabaptists: radicals of the Protestant Reformation

20. Vocabulary
Inquisition: using severe methods like torture to convict many people as heretics
Huguenots: French Calvinists
Puritans: English Calvinists
Presbyterians: Scottish Calvinists
Simony: the sale of church offices
Indulgences: granting forgiveness of sins in exchange for money
Usury: lending money and charging interest
Nepotism: granting positions to relatives

21. Status of Women
While the Protestant Reformation allowed some women to step out of their usual roles (like Catherine Zell of Germany who preached beside her husband), traditionally most women remained obedient servants to their husbands. The Protestants advocated an importance of family relationships, but according to the “divine plan,” women were restricted to only the duties of mothering children and pleasing their husbands.

22. Change Over Time
The Catholic Church had such a huge role as the central authority in Europe before the 1500s. Once Martin Luther stepped out, questioned its authority, and offered a new interpretation of the Christian faith, others followed this trend to break away from the Catholic Church. Protestantism split into different sects, as more ideas and interpretations spread, especially Calvinism. The Peace of Augsburg fueled the Reformation by contributing political support to the movement. While the Counter-Reformation did reform the practices of the Catholic Church, it hardly hindered the Protestant Reformation. As Calvinism began to expand as well, tensions were building and religious warfare began to seem inevitable. The Reformation could not have occurred without the evolution of humanistic ideas during the Renaissance.

23. Age of Absolutism

25. Timeline
Battle of Lepanto Spanish defeated the Turks at Lepanto, it stopped the Turks from ever reaching Europe
Peace of Alais allowed the Huguenots to keep their religious and civil rights from the Edict of Nantes, but stripped them of their private armies and fortified cities
Fronde noble uprising against the French government, wanted to overthrow Mazarin rule for own purposes
English Civil War a parliament vs. the king, parliament wins because of a incapable king (Charles I), Constitutional Monarchy became created with the Parliament becoming stronger
War of Spanish Succession Charles II left the throne of Spain to Louis XIV’s grandson. IT was thought that Spain and France would unit and that would disturb the balance of power which many countries found threatening, Peaces of Utrecht in 1713 ends the war and France and Spain have to remain separate, England big winner at Utrecht
Glorious Revolution confirmed William and Mary as monarchs, The royal power to suspend and dispense with law was abolished, and the crown was forbidden to levy taxation or maintain a standing army in peacetime without parliamentary consent.

26. Timeline cont.
Bill of Rights affirmed Parliament’s right to make law as and levy taxes and made it impossible for kings to oppose or do without Parliament by stipulating that standing armies could be raised only with the consent of Parliament

27. People
Cardinal Richelieu-1624 joined the royal council, issued the Peace of Alais, sent out royal officials called intendants to the provinces to execute the orders of the central government (mainly to collect taxes)
Louis XVI-( )- key’s to his power was that he was able to restructure the central policy-making machinery of gov’t because it was part of his own court and household, building Versailles, revoked Edict of Nantes, wars and Versailles emptied the treasury
Colbert-( )-built roads and canals to improve communications and the transportation of goods, increase wealth by mercantilism, decrease imports by raising tariffs on foreign manufactured goods
Frederick the Great-( )- the Great Elector, created an army for Prussia-Brandenburg, raise money by establishing the General War Commissariat to levy taxes for the army and oversee its growth and training
Peter the Great-( )- took ideas from the west, went away from the Church, abolished serfdom, taught mannerisms in Russia, Table of Ranks could change a non-noble to a noble

28. People cont.
Suleiman I the Magnificent-( )- Turks reached the peak under his rule, conquest of Constantinople, had superiority over the Mediterranean
Charles I- ( )- marriage to Maria, a Catholic, aroused suspicions about the king’s own religion, Parliament had many feuds with him over limiting the monarchy, caused a civil war, beheaded

29. Vocabulary
Absolutism- when the king governs all best example is Louis XIV, one king, one law, one faith
Taille-an annual direct tax usually levied on land or property
Mercantilism- decrease the need for imports and increase exports
Constitutional Monarchy- the king and the Parliament decide on laws first seen in England
Commonwealth- republic
Oligarchy-A form of government in which the supreme power is placed in the hands of a few persons
Monopoly- when a company has total control over their competition over that specific product
French Classicism- imitation of the artists of antiquity, an emphasis on geometric shapes, and the use of definite lines to clearly delineate objects, and the idealization of nature.
Dutch Realism- interested in the realistic portrayal of secular, everyday life

30. Vocabulary cont.
French Neoclassicism- Louis XVI used theater to attract attention to his monarchy, emphasized the clever, polished, and correct over the emotional and imaginative.

31. Women
In Russia, Peter shattered the seclusion of upper-class Russian women and demanded that they remove the traditional veils that covered their faces. Overall in Europe the women were still looked down upon.

32. The Scientific Revolution

33. Europe During the Revolution

34. Timeline of Revolution
1543- Copernicus’ “On The revolutions” is finally published, displaying the heliocentric theory (the sun is at the center of the universe)
1543- Versalius publishes On the Fabric of the Human Body, making unprecedented observations of the human body
1609- Kepler publishes Astronomia Nova, which contains his first two Laws of Planetary Motion
1610- Galileo publishes his major breakthroughs of the universe, using the newly invented telescope in ”Sidereal Messenger”
1619- Kepler publishes Harmonia Mundi, which contains his third law describing the form of the orbits and is the last step towards taking the world away from the Aristotelian system
1620- Bacon publishes “Npvum Organum”, showing how the diverse scientific fields relate to one another
1632- Galileo publishes “Concerning the Two Chief World Systems”, which compares the Ptolemaic System and the Copernican system
1633- Galileo is forced to recant his theories due to the Inquisition
1660- Boyle publishes “New Experiments Physico-Mechanical Touching the Spring of the Air”, displaying his gas laws
1662- The royal Society of London is founded
1687- Newton publishes “Principia”, which shows the laws of universal gravitation

35. Important People during the Revolution
Copernicus- undisputed champion of the Scientific Revolution. He perfected the heliocentric theory, opposing the Ptolemaic System and the geocentric theory. His work, “On the Revolutions”, was not published until after his death for fear of society’s harsh reprisal
Kepler- said the universe was shaped on the basis of geometric figures. He created his three laws of planetary motion, confirming the Copernican system. The laws showed that the orbits moved in elliptical patterns, the speed of a planet increases when it is closer to the sun, and the square of a planet’s period revolution is equal to the cube of the average distance from the sun.
Galileo- first human to use the telescope to observe the universe. His observations destroyed the theory that the make-up of the universe was composed of material similar to that of Earth. Wrote his “Dialogue…” in Italian over Latin so the majority could read it. The work argues for the Copernican system and eventually makes Galileo recant because of the Inquisition
Newton- wrote “Principia”, which demonstrated the universal law of gravitation and the fact that the universe was one huge uniform system

36. Vocabulary
Heliocentric- Theory introduced by Copernicus which disproved the geocentric belief that the Earth was the center of the universe and instead pitted the Sun at the center
Scientific Method- new method of inquiring knowledge set forth by Bacon which was built upon inductive principles
Scientific Society- Facilities which enabled research to be carried out along new experimental lines.

37. Women and the Revolution
Still had traditional attitude that the woman’s role should be that of a daughter, wife, and/or mother.
Women interested in Science had to go about it through an informal education
More opportunities were given to elite women (ex: Margaret Cavendish, aristocrat involved in crucial scientific debates)
In Germany, women interested in Science had greater opportunities because of traditional female participation in craft production- 14% of all German astronomers between were women.

38. Women and the Revolution
Women working in family observations received training in science
Maria Winklemann- German Astronomer, denied position as an assistant astronomer by the Berlin Academy
No women invited to join Royal Academies
Men still had opinions from Medieval times that women were inherently base, very susceptible to sinning, and needed the controlling of men
Men used the new science as an argument to keep women at home and to keep the argument that they were inferior

39. Summary
At the beginning of the Revolution, society was very much based on man’s ego. The Earth was pitted at the center of the universe and men thought that the world revolved around them and that even the universe was of the same material and form as the Earth. As new discoveries arose, such as the Copernican system, Kepler’s Laws, Newton’s gravitational laws, and Galileo’s astronomical discoveries, the opinion was soon shifted. Men began to see that science could not just be based around their egos and that true observations had to be made over inferring through logic the laws of the universe. Though religion tried to cause friction during this shift, the Revolution eventually won out. Today, Scientific observations are the only valid ways to prove anything, and men look at the universe as a solitary unit which has properties that one needs to actually research before inferring anything.

40. Chapter 18: The Enlightenment

42. The Enlightenment
Motto: “Dare to know!: Have the courage to use your own intelligence!”
— Immanuel Kant
Reason behind all things
Seek progress for a better society

43. Road to Enlightenment popularization of science Newton’s Principia
Fontanelle’s Plurality of Worlds
new skeptism
Peter Bayle ( )
attacked religious attitudes
impact of travel literature
accounts of diff. cultures
legacy of Locke and Newton
intellectual inspiration

44. Philosophes most not philosophers most French
affected individuals everywhere
rational criticism- applied
freedom of expression
most did not receive

45. Montesquieu (1689-1755) Beliefs Spirit of Laws (1748)
Persian Letters- criticize French institutions
traditional religion
advocates- religious toleration
denounces slavery
reason- liberates humanity
Spirit of Laws (1748)
3 types of government
republics- small
monarchy- medium like Britain
despotism- large

46. Treatise on Toleration (1763)
Voltaire ( )
Real name: François-Marie Arouet
Treatise on Toleration (1763)
proposed religious toleration
no problems in England & Holland
enlightened despotism
proponent of this form of government
correspondence with Catherine and Frederick
advocate of Deism
believed in the ability of man to shape his destiny
God = clock maker

47. “Great work of his life”
Denis Diderot ( )
Growing pains
son of craftsman
Jesuit education
University of Paris
father’s wish- lawyer or clergy
Dedicated to independence
most versatile of philosophes
“Great work of his life”
THE ENCYCLOPEDIA

48. John Locke Essay Concerning Human Understanding Social Contract
“tabula rasa”- everyone born blank slate
Social Contract
Second Treatise on Government
Locke’s influence
“life, liberty, pursuit of happiness” in American Constitution

49. “Science of Man” Adam Smith (1723-1790) David Hume (1711-1776)
Wealth of Nations (1776)
laissez-faire= leave alone, promoting capitalist system
attack mercantilism, promotes capitalism
David Hume ( )
Scottish philosopher
Treatise on Human Nature
idea: “science of man”
Quesnay and the Physiocrats
leader François Quesnay ( )
land only source of wealth
individuals should pursue self-interest

50. Marie-Jean de Condorcet (1743-1794)
French philosophe
The Progress of the Human Mind
nine stages of history- previous
tenth stage- perfection
terrorized by French revolutionaries

51. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)
Early Years
born in Geneva
abandoned
studied music and classics
moved to France
Discourse on the Origins of Inequality of Mankind
civilization corrupted man
gov’t necessary evil
The Social Contract (1762) (cont. on next slide)
agreement of the governed by general will
people have right to change the government

52. Rousseau (continued) Social Contract (cont.) Emile (1762)
education work
5yr.-12yr. - nature taught Emile
abstract learning
encouraged reason
education should aid natural instincts
Social Contract (cont.)
all responsible to govern themselves
liberty- follow best for group
Rousseau’s private beliefs
women naturally inferior
sent children

53. Women in the Enlightenment
females- naturally inferior according to most philosophes
Diderot and Voltaire- positive views
Mary Wollstonecraft
( )
Vindication of the Rights of Women (1792)
uses beliefs about man’s role to the monarchy as justification
called for equal rights in education and economic and political society
Mary Astell
A Serious Proposal to the Ladies (1697)
women intellectually equal
Some Reflections upon Marriage
reconsiders traditional roles

54. Social Life of the Philosophes
Marie-Thérèse de Geoffrin
haven for Diderot’s The Encyclopedia
attracted Montesquieu, Voltaire
Salons
ran by socialite women
began in the 17th century
elite women’s role in politics
Other ways of expression:
Societies: secret and learned
Coffee houses, cafés
public libraries

55. Art during the Enlightenment
Antoine Watteau
( )
The Pilgramage to Cythera
portrayal of aristocratic life
Rococo Art
emphasized grace
rejected geometry in art
very secular
Balthasar Neumann ( )
premier architect
church at Vierzehnheiligen
the Residenz
elaborate, ornate and colorful
Giovanni Battista Tiepolo
( )
ceiling of Bishop’s Palace
blends with Baroque architecture

56. Music Johann Sebastian Bach Mass in B Minor St. Matthew’s Passion
boisterous spirit in his secular music
felt music means for worshipping God
George Frederick Handel
( )
stormy career
moved to England
40+ operas
Messiah
most well known work

57. Cultural Innovations Recording of History
eliminated need for God in history
politics dominated philosophes writings
Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire by Edward Gibbon
Novel
Samuel Richardson
Pamela - serious tone
wide success
Henry Fielding
History of Tom Jones, A Foundling
adventure story

58. Religion Under Catholic control in 1700: Spain Portugal France Italy
Poland
S. Germany
Habsburg domains
Protestant domains:
Scandanavia (Lutheranism)
N. Germany (Lutheranism)
England (Anglicanism)
Scotland (Calvinism)

59. Religious Tolerance Toleration and Jews most lived in E. Europe
restricted most places (except Poland)
Christians- assimilation of Jews
intellectuals- favored acceptance of Jews
Joseph II of Austria
Toleration Patent of 1781
Catholicism- public
Lutherans, Greek Orthodox and Calvinists can worship privately
“Non-Catholics are in future admitted under dispensation to buy houses and real property, or practice as master craftsmen, to take up academic appointments and posts in public service, and are not required to take the oath of any form contrary to their religious tenets.” -- Toleration Patent (p. 628)

60. Important Terms social contract- obligation of a ruler to the governed
tabula rasa- man born a blank slate shaped by experiences
enlightened absolutism- ex: Frederick the Great and Catherine the Great- rulers who ruled for the good of the people though had supreme power
laissez-faire - hands off government policy toward economics (Adam Smith)
freedom of thought- Immanuel Kant- each person has inalienable right to think freely
Deism- religion of Voltaire- belief system with God as a clock maker

61. Chapter 19
The Eighteenth Century: European States, International Wars, & Social Change

62. Europe in the 1700s

63. Timeline 1703: Peter the Great establishes St. Petersburg
1711: Charles VI takes Hapsburg throne
1714: end of War of Spanish Succession
1715: Louis XV takes French throne
1733 – 1735: War of Polish Succession
1740: Maria Teresa takes control of Hapsburg lands
1740 – 1748: War of Austrian Succession
1756 – 1763: The Seven Years’ War
1762: Catherine the Great takes Russian throne
1772: 1st partition of Poland
1774: Louis XVI takes French throne
1788: Louis XVI calls Estates General
1789: Storming of the Bastille, Great Fear, National Assembly
1793: 2nd partition of Poland, Louis XVI is executed, Reign of Terror
1795: 3rd partition of Poland

64. Terms of the 18th Century
Natural rights: inalienable privileges that cannot be withheld from individuals
Enlightened absolutism: absolute monarchs should make reforms society needs
Domestic system: the practice of using individual households to perform specific tasks in a production process in order to produce goods for merchants
cottage system: the domestic system
Pugachev’s Rebellion: a serf rebellion in Russia led by Emelian Pugachev from 1773 to 1775, as a result Catherine the Great reorganized the Russian government
the Diplomatic Revolution: took place in years after 1748, Frederick the Great allied with the British and Austria, in hopes to regain Silesia, allied with France and the Hapsburgs, and the Russians
the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle: ended the War of Austrian Succession in 1748, Prussia kept Silesia, but other conquered territories were returned to their owners.
Primogeniture: treating the first son as favorite, came under attack as enlightenment ideas spread
Pragmatic Sanction: developed by Charles VI so that other European countries would recognize the authority of his female heir, Maria Theresa

65. Monarchies of the 18th Century
FRANCE: the Old Regime
King Louis XV: r – 1774: his chief minister was Cardinal Fleury
Fleury helped to stabilize French currency and maintain peace
Overall, the King did little to solve major problems in France, with financial difficulties only increasing after the Seven Years’ War
The nobles were upset over privileges and rights they lost as monarchs became more absolute
King Louis XVI: r – 1792: he married Marie Antoinette, an Austrian princess who spent enormous amounts of money resulting in outrage from the French people
Louis XVI appointed Turgot to be controller general of finances, Turgot abolished guilds and tried to reduce government spending, but he did not succeed in fixing France’s economic problems
Louis XVI dismissed Turgot in 1776 and appointed Neker to his position. Necker increased spending and further worsened the financial situation and the king dismissed him in 1781.
Overall, Louis XVI was an ineffective king whose inability to solve Frances problems set the stage for the French Revolution.

66. ENGLAND
In the 18th century power was shared between Parliament and the king
Parliament was dominated by the landed aristocracy
The economy grew as more capital and better transportation became available, requiring more raw materials and world markets.
The Stuart dynasty ended with death of Queen Anne
The crown passed to George I (1714 – 1727), then George II (1727 – 1760), then George III (1760 – 1820)
Robert Walpole was Prime Minister for George I and George II, he had considerable power over running the British government since they had little understanding of its workings
Walpole tried to maintain peace and reduce new taxes
William Pitt the Elder became prime minister in 1757 and worked to acquire new colonies, but he was dismissed by George III and replaced with Lord Bute
George III wanted to strengthen the monarchy, but the people wanted a larger role in their government, so the king was highly criticized.

67. PRUSSIA
Frederick William I: r – 1740: he enforced somewhat strict economic policies and managed the country’s finances very well, increasing its income. He also doubled the size of the Prussian army, with army officers becoming members of the higher social class
Frederick II a.k.a. Frederick the Great: r – 1786: made Prussia one of the most powerful countries in Europe through taking over territory such as the Hapsburg province of Silesia. He also tried reforms to modernize his government. He helped economic development through industry, using tariffs and loans. Frederick II also had a fairly tolerant religious policy, respecting rights of both Lutherans and Catholics.

68. RUSSIA
Peter the Great: he died in 1725, and failed to appoint an heir, so the army and the nobility took over control of the country for a few years until Peter III took the throne in 1762, but he only ruled for a few months because he was incompetent, so his wife – Catherine the Great – took over.
Catherine the Great: r – 1796: she was a strong ruler who liked the reform ideas of the Enlightenment, but she did little to reform Russia. She continued the economic program set in place by Peter the Great, reducing internal barriers to trade. Russia’s export of goods increased. She wanted to increase the power of the throne, but rewarded the nobility that supported her with land and some power. After Pugachev’s serf revolt in 1773, she reorganized government, giving control to local nobility in provinces.

69. AUSTRIA
Charles VI: r – 1740: He was Holy Roman Emperor and ruler of Austria. He gained the Spanish Netherlands with a peace treaty in He had no male heir, so he created the Pragmatic Sanction so that other European rulers would, upon his death, recognize his daughter, Maria Theresa, as his heir (but they didn’t, causing the War of Austrian Succession)
Maria Theresa: r – 1780: After the War of Austrian Succession, her husband received the title of Holy Roman Emperor, but he left Maria Theresa in control. She wanted to consolidate her control, so she took most of the local nobility’s power away. She imposed taxes on both the nobility and the clergy, and abolished the state’s control over the Catholic church.
Joseph II: r – 1780: He did not begin to rule Austria until 1780, when Maria died. He wanted to be an enlightened despot, so he instituted reforms to modernize his government and increase the throne’s power over the Hapsburg lands and over the church and nobility.

70. The War of Austrian Succession
Wars of the 18th Century
The War of Austrian Succession
1740 to 1748
Charles VI (1711 – 1740) had no male heir, so he worked to establish the Pragmatic Sanction with other European countries so that they would recognize Maria Theresa, his daughter, as the Austrian ruler upon his death
When Charles VI died, other European rulers ignored the Pragmatic Sanction, led by Frederick II of Prussia who invaded Austria
The French also entered into war with Austria, so Austria made an alliance with France’s traditional enemy, Great Britain
The war quickly became quite widespread, countries took turns seizing each others’ colonies in the Far East and in America
In 1748 the peace treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle ended the war and returned seized territories to their rightful owners – except for Prussia, who refused to give back territory it took from Austria.

71. The Seven Years’ War : the war in Europe
1756 to 1763
This war took place in Europe and in the colonies
The War in Europe: it began when Frederick the Great of Prussia invaded Saxony (Austria’s ally), Austria was also allied with France, Russia, so Frederick was facing a powerful opponent and was defeated in several battles. Prussia, however, received financial assistance from England, who hoped to strengthen Prussia in order to weaken France and hinder France’s efforts in the colonial wars that were taking place
In 1762 the alliance against Prussia fell apart because Russia left the war (Peter III, the new ruler, liked Frederick), so in 1763 Prussia validated its possession of Silesia with the Treaty of Hubertusburg

72. The Seven Years’ War : the war in colonies
a.k.a. the French & Indian War
France and England went to war in over their colonies
France allied with Spain, and England lost some territory at first
Finally, William Pitt the Elder came to power as prime minister in England and from 1757 to 1761 he helped to better fund the war, and substantially improved the British navy so that they could provide reinforcements and supplies for the colonies, so the British began to win some battles
In 1763 the Treaty of Paris ended the war, with the British getting French Canada and land between the Appalachian Mts. And the Mississippi River. The British also gained dominance in India, and took Florida from Spain since they were allied with France.
In the end, the British won over France.

73. Social Changes in the 18th Century
There was rapid population growth
In the 2nd half of the century attitudes towards children changed (as a result of enlightenment ideas) so that they were no longer viewed as miniature adults, instead of being dressed in adult-like clothing, children’s clothing shops emerged with more comfortable and relaxed clothing, and primogeniture was criticized.
New ways of finance emerged as the establishment of banks allowed for paper currency to become widespread and an expansion of credit to allow for growth of industry.
The domestic system emerged in the countryside, a merchant could have individual households perform specific tasks in a production process to provide him with goods to sell.
Colonial empires allowed for an increase in global trade and an expansion of the country’s economy because they had people to whom they could sell their goods, thus supporting their mercantilist systems.
Society was mostly rural, with free peasants and serfs making up 85% of the population of Europe
The Nobility made up about 3% of the population of Europe, and for the most part they remained a fairly powerful group, both militarily and politically.
Poverty remained a major problem for Europe

74. Chapter 20 A Revolution in Politics: The Era of the French Revolution and Napoleon

75. Timeline of the French Revolution
1774- Louis XVI crowned as French King
1788- France bankrupt, which causes tensions and troubles and leads to revolution.
5/5/1789- The Estates-General meets for the first time since 1614.
5/5/1789- The Third Estate declares itself the National Assembly with the Tennis Court Oath.
6/17/1789- Louis XVI recognizes the National Assembly and allows per capita vote.
7/14/1789- Storming of the Bastille

76. Timeline (continued) 8/14/1789- Feudalism ended in France
8/1789- Declaration of Rights of Man adopted
10/5/1789- Parisian women march on Versailles because of a bread shortage, Louis VXI and Marie Antoinette are relocated to Paris.
1790- Civil Constitution of the Clergy makes Catholicism state religion of France.
1791- Louis XVI adopts a Constitution
1791- The Legislative Assembly meets
9/ The National Convention meets and installs a republic. They tire Louis XVI for treason and convict him.

77. Timeline (continued)
1/21/1793- Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette guillotined in Paris.
1793- Committee of Public Safety formed by National Convention, Reign of Terror- Robespierre and Jacobins take control of France and kill royalist sympathizers.
7/27/1974- Robespierre arrested and guillotined.
1795- The Directory established to govern France.
Napoleon gains power.
1799- Napoleon declares himself Consul of France

78. Timeline (continued)
1802- Napoleon declares himself Consul for life, and then Dictator
1803- Napoleon sells Louisiana territory to the U.S. in order to gain money for his nation and release himself from any conflict with the U.S. and its allies.
Continental System- closing off European ports from Britain.
4/11/1814- Napoleon abdicates the throne and is exiled to Elba.
5/10/1814- Treaty of Paris.

79. Timeline (continued)
9/1814- Congress of Vienna begins, to remake Europe after the downfall of Napoleon
3/1/1815- Napoleon begins his march on Paris.
3/20/1815- Napoleon enters Paris and begins his “100 days.”
6/1815- Battle of Waterloo, Napoleon defeated.
5/5/1821- Napoleon dies

80. Terms
Estates-General-consisted of representatives from three Estates, French parliamentary body, called by Louis XVI for the first time since 1614 and began the revolution.
First Estate- the clergy
Second Estate- the nobles, concerned about the loss of their power in the church, military, and government.
Third Estate- bourgeoisie and peasantry, 70-80% of the population, concerned that the other two estates were exempt from taxes, wanted and enlightened despot,

81. Terms
Declaration of the Rights of Man- Adopted in August, 1789 by the National Assembly, this document states how men are born free and equal and governments must protect the rights.
Tennis Court Oath- The Third Estate was locked out of the Estates-General meeting place, so they met and swore to continue to meet until there was a new constitution for France.
Storming of the Bastille- Louis XVI wanted to use force against the Estates-General, but urban uprisings prevented him. A mob stormed the Bastille in order to find arms.

82. Terms
Bourgeoisie- Middle-class workers, merchants, industrialists, and bankers.
Old Regime- The Absolute Monarchy in France
Napoleonic Code-Napoleon’s codification of laws that forms the basis of laws in many modern day countries.
Jacobins- Radicals during the revolution
“Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity”- The slogan of the Revolution.

83. People
Louis XVI- Absolute monarch, unwilling to change to enlightened despot
Enlightenment thinkers- inspired bourgeoisie and American Revolutionaries with their ideas about government.
Robespierre- Leader of Jacobins, lead the Reign of Terror
Napoleon- Self-declared Consul of France, military strategist, took over Continental Europe, exiled to Elba, returned for 100 days, defeated at Waterloo finally

84. Women
During the revolution, women of Paris staged a march on Versailles and forced Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette to return to Paris.
Declaration of Rights of Women in 1791 voiced woman’s desire for equality among men in France.

85. Europe in the Age of Napoleon

86. Importance
The French Revolution was an attempt to put the ideas of the philosophes into action. It was a major turning point in European political history because it helped promote more democratic ideals and helped begin the modern history of Europe. During the revolution, the weakened nation was an easy target for Napoleon to take over, and he did so successfully and began his campaign conquering lands of Europe. Eventually, the majority of Continental Europe was under control of the dictator until he was finally defeated and exiled, and defeated again at Waterloo after his return.