1. Chapter 1: The Scope of Ecology

2. Levels of Organization
Biosystems are interactions between biotic and abiotic components.
Can be studied at any level
Fungi-algae = lichen; host-parasite (>population, <community)

3. Hierarchies are nested: composed of lower-level groups
Typical Areas of Ecology
Hierarchies are nested: composed of lower-level groups

4. Emergent Property Principle
When hierarchal components are combined to create a larger functional whole (populations  community), new properties emerge
Combine gaseous H with gaseous O, get liquid H2O
Algae and coelenterate animals  coral
High productivity and diversity are emergent properties

5. Transcending Functions and Control Processes
Transcending functions: basic functions that operate at all hierarchies
Behavior, development, diversity, energetics, evolution, integration, and regulation
Positive and negative feedback controls are universal

6. Keeps systems altering as they have in the past (i. e
Keeps systems altering as they have in the past (i.e., regulation of storage and release of nutrients)
Very exact genetic, hormonal, and neural controls

7. Capital
Economic capital – the goods and services provided by humankind, or the human workforce
Gross national product (GNP)
Natural capital – benefits and services supplied to human societies by natural ecosystems, or provided “free of cost” by unmanaged natural systems
Purification of water and air, decomposition of wastes, maintenance of biodiversity, control of nsect pests, pollination of crops, mitigation of floods, provision of natural beauty, etc.
Ecosystem services: 16 to 54 (avg. 33) trillion US dollars per year (Costanza, d’Arge, et al. 1997).

8. Models
A formulation that mimics a real-world phenomenon and by which predictions can be made.
Informal  graphic
Formal  mathematical
Garbage in = garbage out

9. Graphic Model Energy Source (forcing function) Feedback Loop
State variables
Interaction function (emergent property)
Flow Pathways

10. Photochemical Smog Model
Feedback Loop
Solar Energy
Hydro-carbons
Photo-chemical smog
Synergistic effect
Nitrogen-oxides

11. Grassland Model Feedback Loop Solar Energy Plants Omnivores
availability, %, season, threshold
Herbivores

12. Feedback Loops
Represent control mechanisms, + or -

13. Interaction of +/- Feedback Loops

14. Model Symbols

15. Ecosystem Model