2. The Next Step You have decided –What the problem is –What the study goals are –Why it is important for you to do the study Now you will construct the research design which describes what you are going to do in technical terms.

3. Research Design Is a plan for selecting the sources and types of information used to answer the research question. Is a framework for specifying the relationships among the study’s variables Is a blueprint that outlines each procedure from the hypothesis to the analysis of data.

4. Research Design The research design will provide information for tasks such as Sample selection and size Data collection method Instrumentation Procedures Ethical requirements Rejected alternative designs

5. Classification of Research Designs Exploratory or formal Observational or communication based Experimental or ex post facto Descriptive or causal Cross-sectional or longitudinal Case or statistical study Field, laboratory or simulation

6. Exploratory or Formal Exploratory studies tend toward loose structures with the objective of discovering future research tasks –Goal - to develop hypotheses or questions for further research Formal study begins where the exploration leaves off and begins with the hypothesis or research question –Goal – test the hypothesis or answer the research question posed

7. Observational or Communication Based Observational studies – the researcher inspects the activities of a subject or the nature of some material without attempting elicit responses from anyone. Communicational – the researcher questions the subjects and collects response by personal or impersonal means.

8. Experimental or Ex Post Facto In an experiment the researcher attempts to control and/or manipulate the variables in the study. Experimentation provides the most powerful support possible for a hypothesis of causation With an ex post facto design, investigators have no control over the variables in the sense of being able to manipulate them. Report only what has happened or what is happening. Important that researches do not influence variables

9. Descriptive or Causal If the research is concerned with finding out who, what, where, when or how much then the study is descriptive. If is concerned with finding out why then it is causal. How one variable produces changes in another.

10. Cross-sectional or Longitudinal Cross-sectional are carried out once and represent a snapshot of one point in time. Longitudinal are repeated over an extended period

11. Case or Statistical Study Statistical studies are designed for breath rather than depth. They attempt to capture a population’s characteristics by making inference from a sample’s characteristics. Case studies – full contextual analysis of fewer events or conditions and their interrelations. (Remember that a universal can be falsified by a single counter-instance)

12. Field, Laboratory or Simulation Designs differ in the actual environmental conditions

13. Subject’s Perceptions The usefulness of a design may be reduced when people in the study perceive that research is being conducted Hawthorne effect

14. Linking Data and Research Methodology inextricably linked Must always take into account the nature of data collected in the resolution of the problem Example: historical data – you cannot extract much meaning from historical documents by using a laboratory experience

15. Quantitative vrs Qualitative Approaches Categorize research studies into two broad categories Quantitative – relationships among measured variable for the purpose of explaining, predicting and controlling phenomena Qualitative – answer question about the complex nature of phenomena with the purpose of describing and understanding from the participant’s point of view

16. Same investigative question but different design Investigating: What makes case-based instruction effective or ineffective? Researcher 1: assumes the role of participant observer in a case-based business management course for an entire year, spends extensive time with the teacher and students and their perspectives on case-based instruction, scrutinizes data for patterns and themes in the responses, finally writes an in-depth description and interpretation of what was observed

17. Same investigative question but different design Investigating: What makes case-based instruction effective or ineffective? Researcher 2: restates the question to “How effective is case-based instruction in comparison with lecture-based instruction? Finds 5 instructors teaching case-based and 5 teaching the same content as lecture-based, at the end of the semester administers an achievement test to students in all 10 classes, using statistical analysis, compares the scores to determine outcome, writes up the experiment and summarizes the results of the statistical analysis

18. Qualitative Techniques There are several approaches for qualitative research: In-depth interviewing Participant observation –to perceive first hand what participants in the setting experience –Films, photographs and videotape

19. Qualitative Techniques Projective techniques and psychological testing –Projective measures (sentence completion or word association tests, games or role playing Case studies Elite interviewing –Information from influential or well-informed people Document Analysis

20. The Validity of Your Method Accuracy, meaningfulness, an credibility Two basic questions: Does the study have sufficient controls to ensure that the conclusions we draw are truly warranted by the data? (internal validity) Can we use what we have observed in the research situation to make generalizations about the world beyond that specific situation? (external validity)

21. Internal Validity Allows researcher to draw accurate conclusions about cause-and-effect and other relationships within data

22. Suspect Internal Validity Problem: How humor in TV commercials affects sales 2 commercials – One airs in March, April and May with a serious well-known actor One airs in June, July and August with a humorous tone involving teenagers Sales double in June, July and August - >conclusion: Humor boosts sales.

23. Suspect Internal Validity Problem: Studying the effects of soft classical music on the productivity of typists in a typing pool After getting consent, and talking to the typists, music is piped in and productivity is increased by 30% Conclusion: soft music increases productivity (Hawthorn effect)

24. Suspect Internal Validity Problem: The effectiveness of a new method of teaching reading to first graders 14 out of 30 teachers in a particular school district volunteer to learn and use new method. At the end of the school year, students who were instructed with the new method have significantly higher average scores on a reading achievement test than students who received the traditional method. Conclusion: new method is definitely better than the old one

25. Strategies to reduce internal validity problems Controlled laboratory study A double-blind experiment Unobtrusive measures ( to see where people use the library look at worn flooring) Triangulation – multiple sources

26. External Validity The conclusions drawn can be generalized

27. Strategies to enhance external validity A real-life setting – artificial settings may be quite dissimilar from real-life circumstances Representative sample Replication in a different context

28. Ethical Issues Protection from harm – physical or psychological harm –Risks not greater than normal day-to-day risks Informed consent (notice that unobtrusive measure violate this principle) –At Burris, I sign an informed consent each year for my son. ( see page 109 for a informed consent form)

29. Ethical Issues Right to Privacy – participants strictly confidential Honesty with Professional colleagues –Includes full documentation of material belonging to others; no fabrications, representation in fair, honest manner Internal Review Boards Professional Code of Ethics

30. What Approach Should You Use? Quantitative Qualitative Look at table 5.2 and the 10 items Also please note that you can take a self- assessment quiz at http://www.prenhall.com/leedy (noted in the margin in green text page 110) http://www.prenhall.com/leedy