1. Psychology 3051 Psychology 305B: Theories of Personality Lecture 19

2. Psychology 3052 Sex Differences in Personality 1.What stereotypes exist regarding sex differences in personality? 2.What methods are used to assess sex differences in personality? Lecture 19 Questions That Will Be Answered In Today’s Lecture Intelligence, continued 3. What are the primary criticisms of the dominant view of intelligence?

3. Psychology 3053 Sex Differences in Personality, continued 3. What sex differences in personality have consistently emerged from research? 4. Are “masculinity” and “femininity” independent constructs?

4. Psychology 3054 What are the primary criticisms of the dominant view of intelligence? In recent years, a number of theorists have argued against the view that intelligence is best represented by a single score—the IQ score. At a statistical level, these theorists have noted that IQ scores do not account for a substantial amount of the variance in life outcomes. For example:  r between IQ scores and grades =.50  r between IQ scores and SES =.40

5. Psychology 3055 At a theoretical level, these theorists have argued that intelligence should be viewed as a multifaceted construct rather than a single broad entity. Two theories have been proposed that maintain that intelligence is a multifaceted construct:

6. Psychology 3056 1. Robert Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence  This theory maintains that there are 3 facets of intelligence: (a) Analytical facet (b) Creative facet (c) Practical facet

7. Psychology 3057  Consistent with Sternberg’s theory, research suggests that these 3 facets are only weakly correlated with one another.  Moreover, research suggests that the analytical facet is the only facet that is assessed to any degree by standard intelligence tests. For instance, research has shown that scores on practical intelligence tests are relatively independent of scores on IQ tests. E.g., Ceci & Liker (1986): Examined the relation between practical intelligence scores and IQ scores among men who placed bets in horse races.

8. Psychology 3058 2. Howard Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences  Gardener argues that the conceptualization of intelligence as a single broad entity does not account for individuals who have extraordinary talent in one area but lack “general intelligence” (e.g., savants). Gardner’s theory attempts to account for the extraordinary talents of these individuals.

9. Psychology 3059 Gardner (1993) stated: “In the heyday of the psychometric and behaviorist eras, it was generally believed that intelligence was a single entity that was inherited; and that human beings— initially a blank slate—could be trained to learn anything, provided that it was presented in an appropriate way. Nowadays an increasing number of researchers believe precisely the opposite; that there exists a multitude of intelligences, quite independent of each other; that each intelligence has its own strengths and constraints; that the mind is far from unencumbered at birth; and that it is unexpectedly difficult to teach things that go against early 'naive' theories that challenge the natural lines of force within an intelligence.”

10. Psychology 30510 1. Linguistic intelligence 2. Logical mathematical intelligence  Gardener’s theory maintains that there are 8 types of intelligence: 3. Spatial intelligence 4. Musical intelligence 5. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence 6. Intrapersonal intelligence 7. Interpersonal intelligence 8. Naturalist intelligence

11. Psychology 30511  Gardener maintained that all 8 intelligences are neurologically represented. Consistent with his argument, research suggests that damage to specific areas of the brain impairs some types of intelligence while leaving other types of intelligence intact.

12. Psychology 30512 Examples: (a) Damage to the right parietal lobe results in the loss of intrapersonal intelligence. (b) Damage to the left parietal lobe results in the loss of bodily-kinesthetic intelligence. (c) Damage to the frontal and temporal lobes of the right hemisphere results in the loss of interpersonal intelligence

13. Psychology 30513  Gardner argued that the 8 intelligences are amoral in that they can be put to constructive or destructive use: “I want my children to understand the world, but not just because the world is fascinating and the human mind is curious. I want them to understand it so that they will be positioned to make it a better place. Knowledge is not the same as morality, but we need to understand if we are to avoid past mistakes and move in productive directions. An important part of that understanding is knowing who we are and what we can do …. The performance of understanding …we carry out as human beings in an imperfect world which we can affect for good or for ill.” (Gardner, 1999)

14. Psychology 30514  Gardner believed that each person has a unique blend of intelligences. He argued that the greatest challenge facing each of us is to determine “how to best take advantage of the uniqueness conferred on us as a species exhibiting … [multiple] intelligences.”

15. Psychology 30515 What stereotypes exist regarding sex differences in personality? Stereotypes: Cognitive schemas or frameworks that contain beliefs about specific social groups. The beliefs are generalizations about the typical or “modal” characteristics of group members. The beliefs may or may not be consistent with group members’ actual characteristics.

16. Psychology 30516 Research suggests that the content of male and female stereotypes is remarkably consistent across cultures. E.g., Williams and Best (1990)  Recruited male and female participants from 30 countries (e.g., Austria, Bolivia, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Peru, New Zealand, Nigeria, the Unites States).  Presented participants with 300 trait adjectives and asked them to indicate which traits are more characteristic of men and which traits are more characteristic of women.

17. Psychology 30517  Employed two criteria to identify the traits that comprise male and female stereotypes across cultures: 1. If more than two-thirds of the people within a country agreed that a trait is more characteristic of men or women, it was assumed that there was consensus within that country for the trait. 2. If more than three-quarters of the countries surveyed agreed that a trait is more characteristic of men or women, it was assumed that there was cross-cultural consensus for the trait.

18. Psychology 30518 Traits Consensually Associated with Men DominantSelf-confidentBoastful AdventurousAssertiveUnkind StrongEnergeticOpportunistic AggressiveCoarseLogical ForcefulClear-thinkingInventive IndependentActiveRobust UnemotionalSternProgressive WiseCourageousDaring AmbitiousRationalHardhearted DeterminedDisorderlyRealistic

19. Psychology 30519 Traits Consensually Associated with Women CharmingFearfulWeak SensitiveGentleCurious EmotionalMildSexy ShyPleasantTalkative AnxiousSubmissiveAffectionate AttractiveDependentAffected MeekKindSofthearted SentimentalSuperstitiousDreamy

20. Psychology 30520  These trait lists were examined in an effort to identify their underlying dimensions. Three dimensions were identified: 1. Positivity: In general, men were viewed more positively than women. 2. Activity: In general, men were viewed as being more active than women. 3. Strength: In general, men were viewed as being stronger than women.

21. Psychology 30521 Sex difference: The average observed difference between males and females on a given characteristic. Sex differences in personality are typically assessed using a procedure referred to as meta-analysis. What methods are used to assess sex differences differences in personality?

22. Psychology 30522 Meta-analysis allows researchers to statistically combine the results of multiple studies. Meta-analysis involves 2 steps: (a) An effect size or d statistic is computed for each study included in the meta-analysis. (b) The effect sizes that are obtained across the studies included in the meta-analysis are averaged to produce a mean effect size for the characteristic of interest.

23. Psychology 30523 The effect size obtained for a given study is computed as follows: d = [X (males) – X (females) ] / s where d = effect size. X = mean of males/females on the characteristic of interest. s = standard deviation of the entire sample (males and females combined) on the characteristic of interest.

24. Psychology 30524 Thus, a positive effect size indicates that males score higher than females on the characteristic of interest. In contrast, a negative effect size indicates that females score higher than males on the characteristic of interest. An effect size can exceed 1.00 in magnitude.

25. Psychology 30525 Example of the computation of effect size: A group of researchers examined sex differences in nose length. They found that the mean nose length of males was 2.5 inches, whereas the mean nose length of females was 2.0 inches. The standard deviation for the combined sample of males and females was.6 inches. What was the effect size for nose length obtained in this study? d = [X (males) – X (females) ] / s = [2.5 – 2.0] /.6 =.83

26. Psychology 30526 In general, effect sizes are interpreted as follows:  An effect size of.20 or -.20 reflects a small sex difference.  An effect size of.50 or -.50 reflects a moderate sex difference.  An effect size of.80 or -.80 reflects a large sex difference.

27. Psychology 30527 What sex differences in personality have consistently emerged from research? 1. Sex Differences in the Big 5 In conducting research on sex differences in the Big 5, researchers have largely focused on the facets that comprise each dimension of the Big 5. Examples of facets: Agreeableness: Trust, compliance, altruism, straight forwardness, modesty, tender-mindedness. Extraversion: Warmth, gregariousness, assertiveness, activity, excitement seeking, positive emotions.

28. Psychology 30528 (a) Extraversion: Three facets have been examined. Gregariousness (sociable, outgoing) Assertiveness (outspoken, forceful) Activity (energetic, lively) FacetEffect size -.15.50.09

29. Psychology 30529 (b) Agreeableness: Two facets have been examined. Trust (cooperative, forgiving) Tender-mindedness (nurturing, sympathetic) FacetEffect size -.25 -.97 Note: Effect size for smiling is -.60

30. Psychology 30530 (c) Conscientiousness: One facet has been examined. Order (organized, methodical) Ideas (curious, inquisitive) Facet -.13.03 (d) Openness to Experience: One facet has been examined. Facet Effect size

31. Psychology 30531 (e) Neuroticism: Two facets have been examined. Impulsiveness (spontaneous, moody) Anxiety (anxious, tense) FacetEffect size.06 -.28

32. Psychology 30532 2. Sex Differences in Aggressiveness Numerous studies have demonstrated that males score higher in aggressiveness than females. These studies have used a variety of measures: Type of TestEffect size Peer-report measures.40Self-report measures Fantasy measures Projective measures (e.g., TAT).63.84.86

33. Psychology 30533 This sex difference appears to have profound consequences: For example,  Males commit more non-homicidal violent crimes (e.g., assault, armed robbery) than females.  Males commit more homicides than females (~90% of all homicides).

34. 34 0 1000 500 Homicide Rate (Arrests/1,000,000 Persons) Age of Offender 30 40 5060 10 20 Males Females Homicide Rate by Age and Sex

35. 35 0 1000 500 Violent Crime Rate (Arrests/100,000 Persons) Age of Offender 30 40 5060 10 20 Males Females Violent Crime Rate by Age and Sex

36. Psychology 30536 3. Sex Differences in Emotionality Several studies have examined sex differences in the frequency and intensity with which different emotions are experienced. Example: Brebner, 2003  Recruited 9067 participants from 42 countries.  Assessed the frequency and intensity with which participants experienced 4 positive and 4 negative emotions.

37. Psychology 30537 Emotion Effect size for Frequency -.30Affection Contentment Pride -.16 -.13 ns Effect size for Intensity Joy Positive Emotions -.25 -.26 -.18 ns -.23 -.20

38. Psychology 30538 Emotion Effect size for Frequency -.17Fear Anger Guilt -.16 -.05 ns Effect size for Intensity Sadness Negative Emotions -.26 -.28 -.14 -.07 -.25 -.14

39. Psychology 30539  These results suggest that females experience both positive and negative emotions more frequently and more intensely than males. 4. Sex Differences in Self-Esteem Substantial research has examined sex differences in global self-esteem. Global self-esteem: The level of regard that one has for oneself as a person (i.e., at the broadest level).

40. Psychology 30540 Global self-esteem is correlated with many indices of psychological health (e.g., ability to cope with stress, resiliency to negative feedback, life satisfaction, depression, anxiety, somatic symptoms). The overall effect size for self-esteem that has emerged from research is.21 (Feingold, 1994; Kling et al., 1999). When this sex difference is analyzed by age, an interesting pattern of results emerges:

41. Psychology 30541 AgeEffect size.167 – 10 years 15 – 18 years 19 – 22 years.23.33.18 11 – 14 years 23 – 59 years.10 > 60 years -.03 These results indicate that females experience a decrease in self-esteem during adolescence. The decrease, however, is not permanent.

42. Psychology 30542 Are “masculinity” and “femininity” independent Over the last several decades, there has been substantial controversy among researchers as to the nature of masculinity and femininity. In the 1930s, researchers came to believe that masculinity and femininity are best viewed as a single dimension: High MasculinityHigh Femininity constructs?

43. Psychology 30543 However, in the 1970s, with the rise of the feminist movement, researchers began to question the assumption of a single masculinity-femininity dimension. These researchers came to believe that masculinity and femininity form independent dimensions:

44. Psychology 30544 High Masculinity High Femininity Low Masculinity Low Femininity Stereotypically Feminine Stereotypically Masculine Undifferentiated Androgynous

45. Psychology 30545 These researchers argued that the androgynous individual is more “highly developed” than the stereotypically masculine, stereotypically feminine, or undifferentiated individual. Although the 2-D model gained substantial popularity, it was criticized by some researchers:

46. Psychology 30546 (a) Some researchers argued that masculinity and femininity are multifaceted constructs and, therefore, cannot be represented dimensionally. (b) Other researchers noted that people rarely score high on both masculinity and femininity or low on both masculinity and femininity. Rather, the vast majority of people are high on one and low on the other (i.e., are stereotypically masculine or feminine).

47. Psychology 30547 In light of such criticisms, a number of researchers who adopted the 2-D model later revised their thinking. For example, in 1974, Sandra Bem developed the Bem Sex Role Inventory to assess masculinity and femininity in accordance with the 2-D model. However, in light of the criticisms of this model, she revised her thinking, ultimately arguing that her inventory assesses how “gender schematic” an individual is.

48. Psychology 30548 An individual who is highly gender schematic regulates his or her own attitudes and behaviour in accordance with common stereotypes regarding males and females. According to Bem’s new conceptualization, the ideal is not to be androgynous but to be gender aschematic.

49. Psychology 30549 Sex Differences in Personality 1.What stereotypes exist regarding sex differences in personality? 2.What methods are used to assess sex differences in personality? Questions That Were Answered In Today’s Lecture Intelligence, continued 3. What are the primary criticisms of the dominant view of intelligence?

50. Psychology 30550 Sex Differences in Personality, continued 3. What sex differences in personality have consistently emerged from research? 4. Are “masculinity” and “femininity” independent constructs?