1. Two sample problems:  compare the responses in two groups  each group is a sample from a distinct population  responses in each group are independent of those in the other group Some Methods…  Two-sample z distribution  Two independent samples t-distribution  Two sample t-test  Two-sample t-confidence interval  Robustness  Details of the two sample t procedures

2. Comparing two samples Which is it? We often compare two treatments used on independent samples. Is the difference between both treatments due only to variations from the random sampling (B), or does it reflects a true difference in population means (A)? Independent samples: Subjects in one sample are completely unrelated to subjects in the other sample. Population 1 Sample 1 Population 2 Sample 2 (A) Population Sample 2 Sample 1 (B)

3. Two-sample z distribution We have two independent SRSs (simple random samples) coming maybe from two distinct populations with (     ) and (     ). We use 1 and 2 to estimate the unknown   and  . When both populations are normal, the sampling distribution of ( 1 − 2 ) is also normal, with standard deviation : Then the two-sample z statistic has the standard normal N(0, 1) sampling distribution.

4. Two independent samples t distribution We have two independent SRSs (simple random samples) coming maybe from two distinct populations with (     ) and (     ) unknown. We use ( 1,s 1 ) and ( 2,s 2 ) to estimate (     ) and (     ) respectively. To compare the means, both populations should be normally distributed. However, in practice, it is enough that the two distributions have similar shapes and that the sample data contain no strong outliers.

5. df 1-21-2 The two-sample t statistic follows approximately the t distribution with a standard error SE (spread) reflecting variation from both samples: Conservatively, the degrees of freedom (df) is equal to the smallest of (n 1 − 1, n 2 − 1); but in practice, R will compute the degrees of freedom for you.

6. Two-sample t-test The null hypothesis is that both population means   and   are equal, thus their difference is equal to zero. H 0 :   =     −    with either a one-sided or a two-sided alternative hypothesis. We find how many standard errors (SE) away from (   −   ) is ( 1 − 2 ) by standardizing: Because in a two-sample test H 0 assumes (   −    0, we simply use With df = smallest(n 1 − 1, n 2 − 1), or df computed by R.

7. Does smoking damage the lungs of children exposed to parental smoking? Forced vital capacity (FVC) is the volume (in milliliters) of air that an individual can exhale in 6 seconds. FVC was obtained for a sample of children not exposed to parental smoking and a group of children exposed to parental smoking. We want to know whether parental smoking decreases children’s lung capacity as measured by the FVC test. Is the mean FVC lower in the population of children exposed to parental smoking? Parental smokingFVCsn Yes75.59.330 No88.215.130

8. Parental smokingFVCsn Yes75.59.330 No88.215.130 The difference in sample averages follows approximately the t distribution with 29 df: We calculate the t statistic: In table D, for df 29 we find: |t| > 3.659 => p < 0.0005 (one sided) It’s a very significant difference, we reject H 0. H 0 :  smoke =  no (  smoke −  no ) = 0 H a :  smoke (  smoke −  no ) < 0 (one sided) Lung capacity is significantly impaired in children of smoking parents.

9. Two sample t-confidence interval Because we have two independent samples we use the difference between both sample averages ( 1 − 2 ) to estimate (   −   ). C t*t*−t*−t* m Practical use of t: t*  C is the area between −t* and t*.  We find t* in the line of Table D for df = smallest (n 1 −1; n 2 −1) and the column for confidence level C.  The margin of error MOE is:

10. Example: Can directed reading activities in the classroom help improve reading ability? A class of 21 third-graders participates in these activities for 8 weeks while a control classroom of 23 third-graders follows the same curriculum without the activities. After 8 weeks, all children take a reading test (scores below). 95% confidence interval for (µ 1 − µ 2 ), with df = 20 conservatively  t* = 2.086: With 95% confidence, (µ 1 − µ 2 ), falls within 9.96 ± 8.99 or 1.0 to 18.9.

11. Robustness “The two-sample t procedures are more robust than the one-sample t methods. When the sizes of the two samples are equal and the distributions of the two populations being compared have similar shapes, probability values from the t table are quite accurate for a broad range of distributions when the sample sizes are as small as n 1 = n 2 = 5”  When planning a two-sample study, choose equal sample sizes if you can. As a guideline, a combined sample size (n 1 + n 2 ) of 40 or more will allow you to work even with the most skewed distributions. For very small samples though, make sure the data is very close to normal – no outliers, no skewness…

12. Details of the two sample t procedures The true value of the degrees of freedom for a two-sample t- distribution is quite lengthy to calculate. That’s why we use an approximate value, df = smallest(n 1 − 1, n 2 − 1), which errs on the conservative side (often smaller than the exact). Computer software, R, gives the exact degrees of freedom—or the rounded value—for your sample data.

13. SPSS Excel Table D 95% confidence interval for the reading ability study using the more precise degrees of freedom: t*t*

14. Pooled two-sample procedures There are two versions of the two-sample t-test: one assuming equal variance (“pooled 2-sample test”) and one not assuming equal variance (“unequal” variance, as we have studied) for the two populations. They have slightly different formulas and degrees of freedom. Two normally distributed populations with unequal variances The pooled (equal variance) two- sample t-test was often used before computers because it has exactly the t distribution for degrees of freedom n 1 + n 2 − 2. However, the assumption of equal variance is hard to check, and thus the unequal variance test is safer.

15. When both population have the same standard deviation, the pooled estimator of σ 2 is: The sampling distribution for (x 1 − x 2 ) has exactly the t distribution with (n 1 + n 2 − 2) degrees of freedom. A level C confidence interval for µ 1 − µ 2 is (with area C between −t* and t*) To test the hypothesis H 0 : µ 1 = µ 2 against a one-sided or a two-sided alternative, compute the pooled two-sample t statistic for the t(n 1 + n 2 − 2) distribution.

16. Which type of test? One sample, paired samples, two samples?  Comparing vitamin content of bread immediately after baking vs. 3 days later (the same loaves are used on day one and 3 days later).  Comparing vitamin content of bread immediately after baking vs. 3 days later (tests made on independent loaves).  Average fuel efficiency for 2005 vehicles is 21 miles per gallon. Is average fuel efficiency higher in the new generation “green vehicles”?  Is blood pressure altered by use of an oral contraceptive? Comparing a group of women not using an oral contraceptive with a group taking it.  Review insurance records for dollar amount paid after fire damage in houses equipped with a fire extinguisher vs. houses without one. Was there a difference in the average dollar amount paid?