7. Discovery of cosmic rays
In 1909 Theodor Wulf developed an electrometer, a device to measure the rate of ion production inside a hermetically sealed container, and used it to show higher levels of radiation at the top of the Eiffel Tower than at its base. However, his paper published in Physikalische Zeitschrift was not widely accepted. In 1911 Domenico Pacini observed simultaneous variations of the rate of ionization over a lake, over the sea, and at a depth of 3 meters from the surface. Pacini concluded from the decrease of radioactivity underwater that a certain part of the ionization must be due to sources other than the radioactivity of the Earth

8. History of Cosmic Rays: 1912
1912 Victor Hess
Investigated sources of radiation – took balloon up to 5000 meters
Found radiation increased after 2500 meters
This could be attributed to the fact that there was less atmosphere above to shield him from radiation
Thus he discovered that radiation is coming from space ... “cosmic radiation”
Won Nobel Prize in 1936
Scientists who, in 1909, 1910 and 1911, made balloon ascents to record ionization were not given credit since their instruments developed defects. Hess figured out that radiation was coming from space by showing that radiation increased as he ascended into the atmosphere (in a balloon) and was the first to be credited for this discovery.
Hess after his flight, which he took without breathing apparatus in very cold and thin air!

9. In the 1920s the term "cosmic rays" was coined by Robert Millikan who made measurements of ionization due to cosmic rays from deep under water to high altitudes and around the globe. Millikan believed that his measurements proved that the primary cosmic rays were gamma rays, i.e., energetic photons. And he proposed a theory that they were produced in interstellar space as by-products of the fusion of hydrogen atoms into the heavier elements, and that secondary electrons were produced in the atmosphere by Compton scattering of gamma rays

10. . But then, in 1927, J. Clay found evidence, later confirmed in many experiments, of a variation of cosmic ray intensity with latitude, which indicated that the primary cosmic rays are deflected by the geomagnetic field and must therefore be charged particles, not photons. In 1929, Bothe and Kolhörster discovered charged cosmic-ray particles that could penetrate 4.1 cm of gold. Charged particles of such high energy could not possibly be produced by photons from Millikan's proposed interstellar fusion process.

11. Post MSc Lectures, December, SINP
What are cosmic rays ?
High Energy particles
Fully ionised atoms (98%, mainly Hydrogen and He)
< 1% Electrons and photons
Secondaries : high energy particles generated by interactions of cosmic rays in atmosphere
Achtung : more than 50,000 of such particles are going through you in < 30 mins
Particle identification in tracks of emulsion plates
Development of Geiger counters, Cloud chamber
Birth of Particle Physics in Cosmic rays ( 1920 to 1940 )
Post MSc Lectures, December, SINP
M. Mariotti Padova

12. What are cosmic rays (CRs)?
As it turns out, these charged particles are atomic nuclei zooming through space
Called “primary” CRs
Mostly protons or a (He) nuclei (other elements too, in much shorter supply)
There are more coming in at lower than higher energies
When these hit another nucleus in the atmosphere and stop, more particles are knocked downward, causing a cascading effect called a “shower”
Particles in the shower are called “secondary” CRs

23. Crab nebula
صورة مركبة لثلاث صور : صورة الأشعة تحت الحمراء(أحمر) من خلال مقراب سبيتزر الفضائي، صورة الضوء المرئي (أخضر)، وصورة الأشعة السينية (أزرق) لسديم "مسييه 1"، تبين مصادر إصدار تلك الإشعاعات من السديم.

24. Keplers supernova

25. Large Magellanic Cloud