1. Marriage and Cohabitation8
Marriage and Cohabitation
Laura MacIntyre

2. Marriage and Cohabitation
What does marriage mean in the United States today?
How has that changed from the past?
Does the growing practice of cohabitation change the meaning of marriage?
Sociologists study the changing structure of the family and relationships within the family.
Most of the information in this chapter refers to man-woman couples because there is insufficient data and research to incorporate same-sex couples (and other arrangements) into a full discussion.
This chapter focuses on mid-twentieth-century marriage to the present (long-term historical trends are discussed in Chapter 2).

3. Diversity, Inequality, and Social Change
The overall themes of this textbook are diversity, inequality, and social change.
The subject of cohabitation is a good way to examine these central themes.
Trends and patterns in cohabitation reflect each of these themes.

4. Diversity, Inequality, and Social Change: Diversity
Today in the United States marriage is still common, but not universal.
The pathways to marriage diverse and are becoming increasingly diverse.
Some current trends and facts include the following.
Approximately two-thirds of people who marry have already lived together (cohabitated).
Many individuals have children outside marriage.
Same-sex cohabitation (and marriage if an option) is becoming increasingly more accepted within mainstream culture and the law.
Remarriage is becoming more common among American couples because of higher divorce rates and a higher acceptance of remarriage itself.

5. Diversity, Inequality, and Social Change: Inequality
There are patterns of inequality for both parents and children because of the diversity of cohabitation and marriage experiences.
Marriage is more common for individuals with college degrees than for people without higher education.
Individuals tend to marry others with similar education levels and earning potential.
There is an increasing number of both couples or families with two high incomes and singles (and single-parent families) with one very low income.
Married couples are less likely to be poor because there is the possibility of two incomes, not just one.
Single parents (especially mothers) have poverty rates four times those of married couples with children (U.S. Census Bureau, 2013).
Same-sex marriage has been, and is still, a controversial topic.
The issue of the recognition of same-sex marriage is a human rights issue.

6. Diversity, Inequality, and Social Change: Social Change
Relationships between individuals (and within families) reflect larger social forces.
Marriage and cohabitation are subject to change and intersect with culture, law, state policies, and other major aspects of society.
Some changes in modern marriage and relationships include the following.
The growth of the individual and individualism, which have weakened marriage ties between individuals
It has become increasingly easier to separate, divorce, and remain unmarried than ever before.
The law has changed from treating the family as a legal entity to considering the individual as a lone entity with his or her own individual rights and obligations.
Modern identities (how people think about themselves, etc.) have grown more diverse and complex, just as family structures have become more diverse and complex.
Family ties and structure may be central to some individuals’ identities, but not necessarily important to others.

7. Who Gets Married
From the mid-twentieth-century to the present time, there are three major trends related to marriage and marriage rates to be discussed in the next few slides.
There has been an overall decline in marriage.
Marriage rates have declined more rapidly for some (racial-ethnic) groups than for others.
Marriage is increasingly concentrated among those with higher education and income.

8. Who Gets Married: Decline of Marriage
The Decline of Marriage
Post–World War II dramatic increase in marriage and children (baby boom) followed by dramatic decrease
What will later be called the retreat from marriage in family research (Kobrin & Waite, 1984)
Marriage is still common, but more individuals are marrying later and divorce is more frequent.
These two trends contribute to less adult time spent being married overall than in the past.

9. Who Gets Married: Marriages per 1,000 Never-Married Women
This figure shows the percentage of marriages per 1,000 never-married women, 1950–2011.
Source: Cruz (2013); National Center for Health Statistics (1968).
Marriage rates have fallen by more than half since 1970.
Marriage rates have fallen by about two-thirds since 1950.
Delaying marriage – an extra five or six years before marriage for most individuals – marrying later in life
Higher rates of divorce and remarriage, more unmarried time in between
Marriage and married life now less dominant in the lives of Americans than in the past
Marriage arrives later in the sequence of major life events.

10. The Story behind the Numbers: Women
Source: Cohen’s tabulation of U.S. census data.

11. The Story behind the Numbers: Men
Source: Cohen’s tabulation of U.S. census data.

12. Who Gets Married: Culture
The Decline of Marriage
Culture
The culture of marriage seems to contain a contradiction in modern society.
On the one hand, there is the ideal of getting married or being married, which is elevated to an almost impossible ideal or standard; then there is the economic reality of having a wedding and living in household as a married couple.
There are some social critics who claim that individualism is weakening American society.
These same critics point to the decrease in marriage and decline of marriage rates as an indicator that individuals care more about themselves than they do about others or the institution of the family.
Some have called this the retreat from marriage.
But should the decline in marriage be attributed to growing negative attitudes about marriage?
While this may be a contributing factor, there are many other social variables.
And in fact, marriage (in many ways) remains important to individuals.
Many individuals express a desire to marry, but do not feel that it is a viable option because of social barriers and economic obstacles.
Marriage may be ultimately be desired but is postponed because of economic insecurity or other factors.
There seems to be a growing ideal of marriage even as social and economic factors make this ideal almost impossible to achieve for many.
And as cohabitation is becoming more acceptable, marriage is becoming more of a symbolic achievement than a real one.

13. Who Gets Married: Cost of a Wedding with All the Trimmings
This figure shows the average cost of a wedding “with all the trimmings.”
These numbers are the average amounts spent on each item by those who purchased them.
The average total is $44,798.
These numbers indicate that marriage might be becoming more symbolic (or even a social accessory) as it moves more from the institutional arena of the family into the institutional arena of the market.
Source: TheKnot.com (2010).

14. Who Gets Married: Economics
The Decline of Marriage
Culture
Economics
While cultural factors impacting marriage are contradictory and complex, economic factors are equally varied and diverse
Cohen notes two major issues that need to be considered when contemplating economic factors and marriage:
how increasing economic independence for individuals decreases the need for marriage
how negative economic factors and economic insecurity discourage the actual practice of marriage
On the one hand, if individuals are economically secure, they do not have a pressing economic need to get married as they sometimes did in the past.
On the other hand, among individuals with lower incomes, marriage can be (or may be perceived as being) an economic burden or unreasonable commitment.

15. Who Gets Married: Demography
The Decline of Marriage
Culture
Economics
Demography
For some individuals, it is difficult to find a suitable or acceptable marriage partner.
Cultural and economic factors are not the only considerations when it comes to the decision of whether an individual will (or can) marry.
Demographic factors are also a key component, and cultural and economic factors intersect with demographic factors, often making it difficult to decide.
Sometimes even one restrictive factor or consideration can eliminate an entire pool of potential partners (height, weight, etc.).
Cohen identifies two demographic effects on marriage in general: the marriage squeeze and the imbalance in the number of African-American men and women in the United States.
The marriage squeeze is an imbalance in the numbers of eligible men and women created by the World War II baby boom because women tend to marry older men, who are approximately three years older, on average.
The imbalance in the number of African-American women and men was previously described in Chapter 3 and is attributed to a large number of Black men who are ineligible because of high mortality rates, high levels of incarceration, and high levels of unemployment.
These are only a few examples of the ways in which demographic patterns can affect marriage rates.

16. Who Gets Married: Race and Ethnicity
The Decline of Marriage
Race/Ethnicity
All of these forces (cultural, economic, and demographic) have created sharp differences in the marriage patterns of U.S. racial-ethnic groups.
Race-ethnicity is one of the primary restrictions (along with education level and religion) that individuals apply to their choice of marriage partner.

17. Who Gets Married: First Marriages per 1,000 Never-Married Women
This figure shows the first marriage rates among never-married women in 2010.
Asian American women are the most likely to get married for the first time in any give year.
White women are the next most likely, followed by Latina and American Indian women.
Black women have the lowest marriage rates.
Marriage rates for Black women are less than half those of Latinas, Whites, and American Asians (these figures include only single-race women).
These demographic differences all reflect cultural and economic factors.
Source: Cohen’s calculations from 2009–2011 American Community Survey date provided by IPUMS (Ruggles et al., 2014).

18. Who Gets Married: Percentage of American Adults Ever Married
This figure shows the percentages of American adults who have ever been married, categorized by race, from 1950 to 2010.
Note that the marriage gap rate between the Black and White percentages has increased dramatically since 1950, even though the great majority of individuals in both groups expect to marry at some point (Edin & Reed, 2005).
This underscores the difference in attitudes toward the nature of marriage itself.
Research show that both Black men and Black women have higher expectations that both men and women should be economically secure before marriage, as opposed to Whites, who do not have the same high expectations.
Thus it seems that a partial explanation for the marriage gap is that African-American couples set a higher economic standard as a prerequisite for marriage.
Source: Cohen’s calculations from American Community Survey date provided by IPUMS (Ruggles et al., 2014).

19. Who Gets Married: Education
The Decline of Marriage
Race/Ethnicity
Education
In the past, there was tendency for those individuals with more education to marry later than individuals with less education.
This marriage-rate gap seems to be equalizing somewhat, but the explanation is not a simple one.
This is attributed to the fact that obtaining a college degree has become an increasingly important requirement in U.S. society.
As a result of spending additional time in school (in addition to other cultural and demographic factors), many young people are delaying the time of first marriage until well into their 20s in order to finish school and establish a career.
Delaying marriage in order to go to school and establish a career also has an impact on an individual’s occupation and income.
Having a higher income increases the likelihood of getting married and (in general) college and graduate school educations increase the likelihood of a higher income.
Thus individuals with higher education are still more likely to be able to get married if they so choose (even if it is at a later point in their life).

20. The Decline of Marriage Race/Ethnicity Education
Who Gets Married: Why?
The Decline of Marriage
Race/Ethnicity
Education
Why Do People Still Get Married?
Even if there has been a decline in marriage rates in modern society, there are a variety of reasons why individuals still choose to marry.
Andrew Cherlin (2004) talks about the “deinstitutionalization of marriage,” whereby modern marriage is now considered more of an option than a necessary tradition.
The formal and informal rules of marriage have become weaker.
Individuals no longer need to, or are required to, get married for economic security, social standing, or even having children.
Yet even with the deinstitutionalization of marriage, many individuals still choose marriage as an option.
Why is the institution of marriage still a viable – and desirable – option?
Cohen categorizes the reasons to marry into three categories (next three slides).
incentives
social pressure
imitation

21. Who Gets Married: Incentives
The Decline of Marriage
Race/Ethnicity
Education
Why Do People Still Get Married?
Incentives
There are a variety of rewards for getting married.
There are also some penalties for not getting married.
State and federal governments provide rights and benefits to married couples (social protection, parental rights, etc.).
The institutional arena of the market also provides incentives (insurance benefits, employer perks, etc.).

22. Who Gets Married: Social Pressure
The Decline of Marriage
Race/Ethnicity
Education
Why Do People Still Get Married?
Incentives
Social Pressure
There are both real and perceived benefits to marriage, and couples are often encouraged to get married by family, peers, the media, and so on.
There are also many professional family “experts” who similarly extol the virtues of marriage (counselors, social workers, etc.)
Family ties and religious communities have weakened in recent decades but still remain somewhat influential, especially in certain situations (Tucker, 2000).

23. Who Gets Married: Imitation
The Decline of Marriage
Race/Ethnicity
Education
Why Do People Still Get Married?
Incentives
Social pressure
Imitation
Many individuals are overwhelmed by the number of life choices available in modern society and rely on what they see around them.
Marriage is still an important part of culture and is highly visible and symbolic.
It remains a strong desire and choice for many modern individuals.
And even though many young adults are delaying or postponing marriage, the majority still end up marrying, thus choosing to conform to common cultural patterns.

24. Who Marries Whom
Market concept of marriage associated with the following stereotype:
Rich men marry women who are beautiful but who have fewer resources.
Men choose wives based on their potential as mothers, but women choose men based on their potential as providers.
Members of lower status groups marry members of higher status groups when those of higher status have less money or education.
Cohen uses the examples of Barack Obama and Michelle Robinson and J. Howard Marshall and Anna Nicole Smith
Thus individuals use their own personal traits as assets to exchange with potential marriage partners (who have other assets of value to exchange).

25. Who Marries Whom: Marriage Market
Economist Gary Becker (1973) and other researchers identify the process of mate selection as a marketplace and marriage as a market.
This is based on a version of exchange theory (Chapter 1).
For Becker there are two assumptions.
Marriage must be voluntary (for Becker, people will only marry if they think it will improve their lives).
There must be competition for marriage partners.
Marriage can be thought of as a market if these two conditions exist
Many sociologists are critical of the exchange theory assumptions of Becker’s theory.
However, the marriage market concept has been very influential and is still widely used (Kalmijn, 2010).

26. Who Marries Whom: Marriage Market Definition
The social space in which people search for potential marriage partners
Because the marriage market idea is so prevalent and is used by many sociologists, this term is used in the text but is more generally defined and does not accept the assumptions of exchange theory.
This market is not limited to one geographical space, but rather includes virtual (online) space as well.
Cohen identifies two sociological aspects of marriage markets: preference and boundaries.
In terms of preference, our choice of marriage partners reflects the process of socialization and social expectations of what is acceptable and desirable in a future partner.
Thus, similar people end up together (related to the concepts of endogamy and homophily) because of both personal preferences and practical limits (both influenced by social factors).
In terms of boundaries, the factors of race, education and religion are the most resilient and divisive.
These divisions are created by cultural and traditional practices in addition to structural barriers.

27. Who Marries Whom: Endogamy
American marriage markets are still sharply divided (informally) by race/ethnicity, religion, and social class.
Endogamy is still very much present in the United States and other modern societies.

28. Who Marries Whom: Race and Ethnicity
Endogamy
Race and Ethnicity
During the last 50 years, the U.S. population has grown increasingly diverse.
Marriages between different racial/ethnic groups (intermarriage) increased from 2 percent in 1960 to 15 percent in 2008 (Passel, Wang, & Taylor, 2010).

29. Who Marries Whom: Racial-Ethnic Patterns of Marriage
Source: Cohen’s calculations from 2009–2011 American Community Survey data provided by IPUMS (Ruggles et al., 2014).
This figure shows the racial-ethnic patterns of marriage.
Among people who married in the last year, this is the percentage of men and women who married someone from each of the five major racial-ethnic groups.
The data exclude 3 percent of people who were not Hispanic and specified more than one race.
Whites are the most likely to marry someone from their own group.
The results of this table indicate that there is a persistence of historical prejudice and that race/ethnicity remain an issue in the American marriage market.
But there are also indications of change and modernization in marriage decisions.
The increasing importance of education and the declining influence of religion are also important factors that intersect with race-ethnicity and have an equally important role in the American marriage market.

30. Who Marries Whom: Education
Endogamy
Race and Ethnicity
Education
Choosing a marriage partner with the same level of education is expected in U.S. society, especially for individuals with high levels of education.
There has been growing tendency for individuals to be matched to partners with equivalent levels of education.
This type of educational matching also reflects the modern definition of marriage as a partnership of equals, with similar goals and tastes (Cherlin, 2004).

31. Who Marries Whom: Religion
Endogamy
Race and Ethnicity
Education
Religion
There has been a distinct decrease in religious endogamy (Cherlin, 2010).
This is partially because of the decrease in the (traditional) authority of the church for many modern individuals (Myers, 2006).

32. Who Marries Whom: Sex Endogamy Race and Ethnicity Education Religion
This whole section has only been discussing heterosexual marriage and mate selection.
In terms of endogamy, most individuals select partners of the opposite sex.
However, it is difficult to measure because there are still many places where same-sex marriage is not allowed.
As same-sex marriage becomes more accepted and practiced, there will be more knowledge and understanding about the mate selection process and family dynamics of same-sex partnerships.

33. Cohabitation Cohabitation
The increase in cohabitation between individuals is one of the biggest changes in marriage in recent decades.
Cohabitation has increasing become an expected stage in the relationship process (Manning, Longmore, & Giordano, 2007).

34. Cohabitation: Definition
Living together as a sexual or romantic couple without being married
Cohabitation is defined as “living together as a sexual or romantic couple without being married.”
It is becoming an increasingly expected stage in the relationship process for the majority of individuals.
Most Americans will cohabitate at some point in their lives.
The arrangements of cohabiting are varied and negotiable between couples.
Some arrangements are more formal; most are informal.
Some involve commitments; some do not.
Individuals may be engaged, have children, or be sexually exclusive – or none of these things may be true.
There is a wide variety of situations.

35. Cohabitation: Percentage of Women Who Have Cohabitated
Source: Source: National Center for Family and Marriage Research (2010).
This figure shows the percentage of women ages 19–44 (broken down by education) who cohabited at any time from 1987 to 2007.
Cohabitation rates have increased rapidly.
But the increase is greatest for those with less education.
Those individuals with less education also tend to have the highest rates of cohabitation.
Social class is also a factor in cohabitation rates.
Furthermore, cohabitation has altered the path to marriage and has had a major impact on the experience of marriage itself.

36. Cohabitation: Relationship Status
Source: Adapted from Goodwin, Mosher, and Chandra (2010).
A quarter of couples who cohabitate separate within a year; 14 percent get married
After five years, approximately 40 percent of couples have married (this figure also includes couples who both marry and divorce); 50 percent will have broken up.

37. Cohabitation: Before Marriage
Cohen breaks down the experiences of cohabitation into three conceptual categories: “before marriage,” “instead of marriage,” and “after marriage.”
“Before marriage” is the most common form of cohabitation.
It is a chance to practice marriage without making a public, religious, and legal commitment.
Most Americans now believe that cohabitation is an acceptable stage in the relationship process and is the right thing to do for some couples.
This is a marked difference from recent past when living together was considered living in sin (although some people still believe this).
But there are both positive and negative effects and risks of cohabitation that made an indelible mark on the mate selection process and the institution of marriage itself.
Some couples end up getting married after cohabiting because of what has been called relationship inertia (Stanley, Rhoades, & Markman, 2006).
Some couples may end up living in poor conditions because cohabiting is viewed as less committed or less permanent.
Poor or couples with low income may cohabitate with plans to eventually marry but never reach the economic goals they have set for marriage.
And financial pressures may compel some couples to live together more for economic reasons than for love (Kreider, 2010).

38. Cohabitation: Instead of Marriage
Before Marriage
Instead of Marriage
Another category of couples choose to cohabitate instead of marry (Thornton, Axinn, & Xie, 2007).
This is a smaller, less understood group, and the reasons for cohabitating instead of marrying are many and varied.
A small number of American couples choose to form relationships outside of the bonds of conventional, legal, or religious authority.
There may or may not be opposition to this in the form of family condemnation or social ostracization .
Faced with potential opposition, cohabiting couples are more likely to include individuals who have greater educational or racial-ethnic differences (which might make marriage an even more difficult choice than cohabitation).
Another instance where cohabitation occurs is when one partner desires to get married and the other does not; cohabitation might be a compromise.
Overall, cohabitation as an alternative to marriage is most common among economically disadvantaged couples (Lichter & Qian, 2008).

39. Cohabitation: After Marriage
Before Marriage
Instead of Marriage
After Marriage
There are now more individuals in the population who are divorced or who have become widowed.
Cohabitation is becoming increasingly common among older adults who have been widowed or divorced.
Cohabitation may be a less risky alternative to marriage and may provide a better family arrangement, especially if children are involved.
For this group, cohabitation is less about testing the viability of a relationship before marriage and more about finding a long-term substitute for marriage.

40. The Modern Married Individual
A major concern for sociologists was, and still is, “the decline of marriage” (Cherlin, 2005).
And there has been an actual decline in the percentage of couples who choose marriage.
But marriage still remains one of the most important aspects of an individual’s life (Thornton, Axinn, & Xie, 2007).
Moreover, the state of being married (or not being married) is an important part of the identity of the modern individual.
This goes back to the theme of the development of individualism as an integral component of modern identity.
Some critics point to modern identity or individualism as one of the fundamental causes of “the decline of marriage.”
When studying sociology and the family, a fundamental issue is the tension between marriage and individualism.
Many individuals pursue marriage for reasons that are individualistic and self-centered (personal happiness, personal goal fulfillment, etc.) and there are more life choices available for individuals today.
But individualism is not just a negative feature of marriage and the family; it is also a central component to the modern definition of family.

41. The Benefits of Marriage: Happiness
Sociologists study the costs and benefits of marriage.
Happiness can be one of the benefits of marriage and marriage and happiness are often studied together.
There are two types of marriage and happiness studies (but they are not unrelated nor mutually exclusive).
studies that attempt to determine whether individuals are happy in marriage
studies that asks whether people who are married are emotionally happy in general

42. The Benefits of Marriage: Percentage Describing Marriage as “Very Happy”
Source: Cohen’s calculations from the General Social Surveys, 1972–2012 (Smith et al., 2014).
This figure shows the percentage of individuals who describe their marriage as “very happy” from 1973 to 2012.
The question asked was, “Taking all things together, how would you describe your marriage: very happy, pretty happy, or not too happy?”
The tendency of married individuals to describe their marriage as “very happy” has remained relatively stable since the 1970s.
However, there are two important differences: (1) whites describe their marriages as happier than other groups; and (2) men describe their marriages as happier more than women do (Corra et al., 2009).
The gender difference reinforces the perspective that marriage is more beneficial for men than it is for women (Bernard, 1982).
There are also not many comparable studies of gay and lesbian couples (Biblarz & Savci, 2010).
Research has shown that both married men and women are happier than those who are not married (Wienke & Hill, 2009).

43. The Benefits of Marriage: Health and Wealth
Happiness
Health and Wealth
In addition to happiness, benefits of marriage can include health and wealth.

44. The Benefits of Marriage: Selection Effect
Happiness
Health and Wealth
selection effect
But when studying things like happiness, health, wealth, and marriage, sociologists need to make certain that they are not participating in the selection effect.

45. The Benefits of Marriage: Selection Effect Definition
Happiness
Health and Wealth
Selection Effect
The problem that occurs when the cause being studied has already been determined by the outcome that is under investigation
The selection effect is the problem that occurs when the cause being studied has already been determined by the outcome that is under investigation.
This can be avoided by using longitudinal studies (Chapter 1) in order to determine the sequence of events.
Through longitudinal studies of causes and effects of marriage, it has been concluded that marriage does provide benefits to those who are married.
Cohen identifies three sources of marriage benefits (next three slides).
behavioral changes and responsibility
cooperation
social status

46. The Benefits of Marriage: Responsibility
Happiness
Health and Wealth
Responsibility
The responsibility and sense of obligation individuals assume when they marry seem to promote healthier and more advantageous behavior (Umberson, Crosnoe, & Reczek, 2010).
That is, many individuals view marriage as a responsibility which leads them to be more cautious and careful.

47. The Benefits of Marriage: Cooperation
Happiness
Health and Wealth
Responsibility
Cooperation
Spouses (and other family members) can share and pool resources and participate in a type of family division of labor, which can be a more productive and efficient way of living.
For example, a male breadwinner can work to earn more income in an occupation outside of the home because he is married to a stay-at-home wife who takes care of the housework and child care.
Economists call this arrangement specialization (Bardasi & Taylor, 2008).

48. The Benefits of Marriage: Status
Happiness
Health and Wealth
Responsibility
Cooperation
Status
Social status, although much less tangible than other benefits, remains an important reward for marriage for many individuals.
However, this is much more true for men than it is for women.

49. The Benefits of Marriage: Religion
Happiness
Health and Wealth
Religion
Married couples tend to participate in religious practices more than single individuals.
When spouses share religious beliefs and rituals, this is associated with greater marital happiness.

50. The Benefits of Marriage: How Often Adults Attend Religious Services
Source: Cohen’s calculations from the General Social Surveys, 1972–2012 (Smith et al., 2014).
This figure shows how often adults attend religious services.
Here we can see that married individuals attend religious services much more than unmarried ones.
However, while personal religious beliefs remain strong for many individuals in the United States, the institutional authority of religious leaders has decreased.
Religion in the United States as an influence on marriage has weakened (Myers, 2006).

51. The Politics of Marriage
The growth of individualism and individual freedom in modern society has decreased the regulatory role of the family.
As a result, marriage has taken on an increasingly symbolic role.
This means that many of the things that were once regulated within the institutional arena of the family are now being related outside the realm of legal marriage.
The symbolic character of marriage has made the politics and public discourse surrounding it extremely emotional.
The shift from functional to symbolic is not necessarily a bad thing (even though some critics claim it is “the end of marriage”).
For example, for women the institution of marriage used to be much more restrictive and oppressive.
Cohen discusses two political issues that are currently being contested on behalf of marriage in society (discussed in the next few slides).
the effort to encourage marriage among poor people (marriage promotion)
the political and legal battle to extend marriage rights to same-sex couples (marriage rights)

52. The Politics of Marriage: Marriage Promotion
The federal welfare program for families used to be called Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC).
Conservative critics of the program argued that it encouraged women to remain single and promoted dependency on government welfare.
AFCD was reformed in 1996, funding was to families was cut, and the name was changed to Temporary Assistance to Needy Families (TANF) to reflect this change.
TANF established two major goals: to provide assistance to poor families, and to “encourage the formation and maintenance of two-parent families” (Bush, 2004),
These goals were based on the belief that children were better off in more traditional, two-parent family arrangements.
These policies and goals served to promote marriage, and similar legislation was passed to encourage the same agenda.
The end result was that single mothers had the option of either getting a job or getting married.
Solely caring for children in the home (at least as a poor, single mother) was no longer supported.
Funding that had originally been designated to be paid directly to poor mothers was now being used by government and nonprofit agencies on marriage promotion programs (programs to promote and strengthen marriages).
There are many examples of these programs (like the Oklahoma Marriage Initiative depicted in the picture on this slide), but overall, they do not seem to be successful (Johnson, 2012).

53. The Politics of Marriage: Marriage Rights
Marriage Promotion
Marriage Rights
Like marriage promotion legislature and policy, the political movement for marriage rights for gays and lesbians is another area where the symbolic role of marriage is being contested.
Marriage was not a prominent issue for gays and lesbians until the 1990s.
At that time, issues such as the military “don’t ask, don’t tell” policy and the Defense of Marriage Act (DoMA) helped bring same-sex marriage rights and recognition to public attention (Warner, 1999).
For some, the debate over marriage rights itself is a sign that marriage is in decline.
For others, marriage is an important issue involving individuality, individualism, and freedom of choice.
As of now, there is growing support for same-sex marriage in American society, although opposition remains.

54. The Politics of Marriage: Support and Opposition to Same-Sex Marriage
Source: Pew Research Center (2013).
This figure shows the support and opposition to same-sex marriage from 2001 to 2013
Since 2011, more national survey respondents have said that they believe that same-sex marriage should be legal than opposed to it.

55. The Politics of Marriage: Same-Sex Marriage
Marriage Promotion
Marriage Rights
Same-Sex Marriage
The federal government provides many benefits to married individuals.
The conflict over same-sex marriage is part of a global debate.
In the nineteenth century, the federal government intervened to regulate American Indians and Mormons.
It is mostly up to individual states to intervene and regulate.
Loving v. Virginia (1967) ruled that state laws prohibiting interracial marriage (miscegenation) were unconstitutional.
In 2004 some states began changing laws to permit same-sex marriage.

56. Same-Sex Marriage
Source: Cohen’s calculations from the Census Bureau data and various sources, as of December 2013.
This figure shows the percentage of the U.S. population living in states where same-sex marriage is legal, by the dates the new laws took effect.
Starting in 2004 some states began changing laws to permit same-sex marriage.
The first state changes were made by judges; state legislatures began to follow by voting to permit same-sex marriage, and later, state referendums were introduced.
There are both states that permit same-sex marriage and states that specifically prohibit it.

57. The Story behind the Numbers: Question
1. Order the following to reflect the sequence of life events that typically occurs for the average young adult woman in the modern era?
get married
complete education
embark on a career
have children
Answer: B, C, A, D
Discussion: As the rates of young adults who delay marriage increase, it has consequently become more common for them to have earned a degree and then start a career prior to marrying. Marriage is therefore occurring later in the sequence of these women’s lives, and they have more adult experiences prior to marriage as a result.
For peer instruction (PI) in the classroom, give students the opportunity to rank the answers to the question using clickers or colored cards.
Results may be displayed to the class, or the results can be postponed until after the peer sharing process.
Have students pair with another student who answered with a different answer.
Allow time for discussion (approx. two to three minutes; this time may be modified).
Discuss the results as a class.

58. The Story behind the Numbers: Women Who Get Married
For peer instruction (PI) in the classroom, use this slide after the previous clicker question has been answered.
This slide may be followed by the next slide for a point of comparison between female and male marriage percentages.

59. The Story behind the Numbers: Men Who Get Married
This slide may be used as a point of comparison to discuss the different percentage rates between females and males and the ages at which they tend to marry (optional).

60. Workshop: YouTube Wedding
Have students complete the workshop assignment (“YouTube Wedding Workshop”) on p. 300.
In small groups or individually, have student select a wedding video from YouTube and answer the following questions.
How many people are there (wedding size)?
What family members are present and what are their roles (family)?
Do you see any evidence of any wedding traditions (traditions)?
How much do you think was spent on this wedding and does it look expensive or inexpensive (cost)?
How do you think this wedding compares to the perfect wedding with a cost $44,798 outlined on p. 269 (comparison)?
Optional: Students may either submit a written report to the instructor or an oral presentation to class (or a combination of the two).

61. 1. Which of the following is an example of endogamy?
Review Question 1
1. Which of the following is an example of endogamy?
a man who marries someone who makes less money than he does
a woman who remarries after divorce
a woman who marries someone in her racial group
a man who marries someone of the same sex where this is legally recognized
Answer: C
Discussion: Endogamy refers to marriage and reproduction within a distinct group. If someone marries someone within their racial group, this is an example of endogamy.

62. Review Question 2
2. Researchers have found that within the last few decades, those with less education are increasingly delaying their first marriage due to
higher fertility rates.
increased economic insecurity.
lack of less-educated marriage partners.
lowered incentives for marriage.
Answer: B
Discussion: Economic insecurity has become much more prominent for less- educated young adults, especially men. A good job generally requires a college degree, and therefore low wages and job insecurity are major factors impacting young adults with less education, which influences their decision to delay marriage.

63. Review Question 3
3. The two assumptions required for Gary Becker's marriage market concept are that marriages must be ______ and there must be ______ for spouses.
endogamous; diversity
voluntary; competition
monogamous; variety
affordable; choices
Answer: B
Discussion: Gary Becker’s concept of using a market to understand marriage choices defines marriage as a market similar to one for goods and services such as cars. In order for marriage to work like a market, it must be something that parties can voluntarily enter into, and there must also be competition for spouses so that people can shop for the best one.

64. Review Question 4
4. Social and cultural changes have brought about more ______, which some people argue has weakened marriage ties; however, researchers suggest that the relationships that do survive are emotionally stronger.
individualism
religious endogamy
familial pressure to marry
marriage markets
Answer: A
Discussion: Major social change within society has included the growth of individualism, with goals of individual fulfillment and self-expression. Some suggest that this has weakened the ties of marriage; however, other researchers believe that the relationships that do survive are emotionally stronger.

65. Review Question 5
5. One major illustration of the modern changes seen in marriage patterns is that ______ has now become an expected stage in relationships for the majority of couples.
endogamy
cohabitation
religious intermarriage
annulment
Answer: B
Discussion: In recent decades, cohabitation (defined as living together as a sexual or romantic couple without being married) has rapidly become an expected stage in relationships for the majority of couples. By changing the pathway to marriage, cohabitation has fundamentally changed the experience of marriage.

66. Review Question 6
6. A woman choosing to delay marriage longer than her mother did because she is able to support herself financially is an example of how ______ can contribute to declining marriage rates.
demographics
economics
a marriage squeeze
endogamy
Answer: B
Discussion: Increased economic independence for women has led to some women delaying marriage by removing economic insecurity as an incentive to marry. Women’s independence also reduces the incentives for men to marry since it means that a woman may not devote herself exclusively to caring for the family.

67. 7. The term wedding industrial complex refers to the
Review Question 7
7. The term wedding industrial complex refers to the
transformation of weddings from small gatherings to large ones.
increasingly complex nature of marriage law.
high cost and large number of components of a modern-day wedding.
fact that weddings have decreased due to the decline of industry-based jobs.
Answer: C
Discussion: Chrys Ingraham coined the term wedding industrial complex to refer to the increased cost and large number of aspects of a modern-day wedding. Although many people are critical of this industry, some feel that couples should have a large number of choices for how to present themselves to their families on their wedding day.

68. This concludes the Lecture Slide Set for Chapter 8by
Philip Cohen
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