1. Copyright © 2004 by Allyn and Bacon 5 5 Attitudes and Persuasion

2. Copyright © 2004 by Allyn and Bacon Chapter Outline The Nature of Attitudes What is Persuasion? Goals of Persuasion Seeking Accuracy Being Consistent Gaining Social Approval The Nature of Attitudes What is Persuasion? Goals of Persuasion Seeking Accuracy Being Consistent Gaining Social Approval

3. Copyright © 2004 by Allyn and Bacon The Nature of Attitudes Attitudes spring from several sources: Classical conditioning Operant conditioning Observational learning Heredity Attitudes spring from several sources: Classical conditioning Operant conditioning Observational learning Heredity

4. Copyright © 2004 by Allyn and Bacon Attitude Strength Strong attitudes: Are more likely to remain unchanged as time passes, Are better able to withstand persuasive attacks or appeals specifically directed at them. Strong attitudes: Are more likely to remain unchanged as time passes, Are better able to withstand persuasive attacks or appeals specifically directed at them.

5. Copyright © 2004 by Allyn and Bacon Attitude Strength The two main reasons strong attitudes resist change are Commitment - people are sure they are correct Embeddedness - people have connected these attitudes to other features of their self-concept, values, and identity. The two main reasons strong attitudes resist change are Commitment - people are sure they are correct Embeddedness - people have connected these attitudes to other features of their self-concept, values, and identity.

6. Copyright © 2004 by Allyn and Bacon Attitude-Behavior Consistency The following factors influence the likelihood that a person’s attitude will be consistent with his behavior: Knowledge Personal relevance Attitude accessibility The following factors influence the likelihood that a person’s attitude will be consistent with his behavior: Knowledge Personal relevance Attitude accessibility

7. Copyright © 2004 by Allyn and Bacon Attitude-Behavior Consistency Theory of planned behavior - Theory stating that best predictor of behavior is one’s behavioral intention, which is influenced by: -One’s attitude toward specific behavior -Subjective norms regarding the behavior -One’s perceived control over the behavior Theory of planned behavior - Theory stating that best predictor of behavior is one’s behavioral intention, which is influenced by: -One’s attitude toward specific behavior -Subjective norms regarding the behavior -One’s perceived control over the behavior

8. Copyright © 2004 by Allyn and Bacon Attitude (One’s evaluation of the specific behavior in question) Subjective Norm (One’s perception that important others will approve of the behavior) Perceived Behavioral Control (One’s perception of how difficult it would be to perform the behavior) Behavioral Intention (One’s aim to perform the behavior) Behavior Theory of planned behavior

9. Copyright © 2004 by Allyn and Bacon What Is Persuasion? Persuasion - change in private attitude or belief as a result of receiving a message

10. Copyright © 2004 by Allyn and Bacon Measuring Attitude Change Nonreactive measurement - measurement that does not change a subject’s responses while recording them Covert techniques are more nonreactive than self-reports. Nonreactive measurement - measurement that does not change a subject’s responses while recording them Covert techniques are more nonreactive than self-reports.

11. Copyright © 2004 by Allyn and Bacon The After-only Design The after-only design assesses persuasion by measuring attitudes only after the persuasion attempt.

12. Copyright © 2004 by Allyn and Bacon Cognitive Responses: Self-Talk Persuades Cognitive response model - a theory that locates the most direct cause of persuasion in the self-talk of the persuasion target

13. Copyright © 2004 by Allyn and Bacon Cognitive Responses: Self-Talk Persuades Counterarguments - arguments that challenge and oppose other arguments

14. Copyright © 2004 by Allyn and Bacon Cognitive Responses: Self-Talk Persuades Inoculation procedure - a technique for increasing individuals' resistance to an argument by first giving them weak, easily defeated versions of it

15. Copyright © 2004 by Allyn and Bacon Dual Process Models of Persuasion: Two Routes to Change Dual process model of persuasion - a model that accounts for the two ways that attitude change occurs— with and without much thought Elaboration likelihood model - there are two routes to attitude change—the central route and the peripheral route Dual process model of persuasion - a model that accounts for the two ways that attitude change occurs— with and without much thought Elaboration likelihood model - there are two routes to attitude change—the central route and the peripheral route

16. Copyright © 2004 by Allyn and Bacon Dual Process Models of Persuasion: Two Routes to Change Message recipients will consider a communication deeply when they have both: the motivation the ability Message recipients will consider a communication deeply when they have both: the motivation the ability

17. Copyright © 2004 by Allyn and Bacon Dual Process Models of Persuasion: Two Routes to Change Factors that influence a person's motivation to process a message deeply: Personal relevance of the topic (does it matter to you?) Need for cognition - tendency to enjoy and engage in deliberate thought Factors that influence a person's motivation to process a message deeply: Personal relevance of the topic (does it matter to you?) Need for cognition - tendency to enjoy and engage in deliberate thought

18. Copyright © 2004 by Allyn and Bacon Message High motivation and ability to think about the message Low motivation or ability to think about the message Peripheral processing, focused on surface features such as the communicator’s attractiveness or the number of arguments presented. Central processing, focused on the quality of the message arguments. Lasting change that resists fading and counterattacks Temporary change that that is susceptible to fading and counterattacks Persuasion Attempt Audience Factors Processing Approach Persuasion Outcome

19. Copyright © 2004 by Allyn and Bacon esearch The Effects of Personal Relevance Petty & Cacioppo (1984) asked college students to read arguments in favor of mandatory comprehensive exams. Students would be required to pass these exams before being allowed to graduate. Petty & Cacioppo (1984) asked college students to read arguments in favor of mandatory comprehensive exams. Students would be required to pass these exams before being allowed to graduate.

20. Copyright © 2004 by Allyn and Bacon esearch The Effects of Personal Relevance The issue was either highly relevant to them (They would personally have to take the exams to graduate) Or of low relevance to them (Policy would not take effect for 10 years – long after they’d graduated). The issue was either highly relevant to them (They would personally have to take the exams to graduate) Or of low relevance to them (Policy would not take effect for 10 years – long after they’d graduated).

21. Copyright © 2004 by Allyn and Bacon esearch The Effects of Personal Relevance Arguments were either high quality e.g., “Average starting salaries are higher for graduates of schools with exams” Or low quality “Exams would allow students to compare performance with other schools” Some students heard only 3 arguments. Others heard 9 arguments. Arguments were either high quality e.g., “Average starting salaries are higher for graduates of schools with exams” Or low quality “Exams would allow students to compare performance with other schools” Some students heard only 3 arguments. Others heard 9 arguments.

22. Copyright © 2004 by Allyn and Bacon Number of Arguments Attitude Toward Exams 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 3 9 39 High Low Personal Relevance High Personal Relevance Argument Quality For students with a personal stake, more strong arguments were more convincingesearch

23. Copyright © 2004 by Allyn and Bacon Number of Arguments Attitude Toward Exams 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 3 9 39 HighLow High Low Argument Personal Relevance Quality But more weak arguments left them less convincedesearch

24. Copyright © 2004 by Allyn and Bacon Number of Arguments Attitude Toward Exams 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 3 9 39 HighLow High Low Argument Personal Relevance Quality Students who wouldn’t be affected didn’t process qualityesearch

25. Copyright © 2004 by Allyn and Bacon The Goals of Persuasion: Why People Change Their Attitudes and Beliefs Individuals may yield to a persuasive message in order to hold a more accurate view of the world be consistent with themselves gain social approval and acceptance. Individuals may yield to a persuasive message in order to hold a more accurate view of the world be consistent with themselves gain social approval and acceptance.

26. Copyright © 2004 by Allyn and Bacon Seeking Accuracy

27. Copyright © 2004 by Allyn and Bacon Good Shortcuts When we can’t make a thorough evaluation of a persuasive argument, we may rely on shortcuts, such as: Credibility of communicator Is the person an expert? Trustworthy? Others’ responses Which side do other people seem to be taking? Ready ideas What side have I heard frequently or recently? When we can’t make a thorough evaluation of a persuasive argument, we may rely on shortcuts, such as: Credibility of communicator Is the person an expert? Trustworthy? Others’ responses Which side do other people seem to be taking? Ready ideas What side have I heard frequently or recently?

28. Copyright © 2004 by Allyn and Bacon Issue Involvement Cognitive resources are too limited to think deeply about every issue. People focus their accuracy concerns on issues that involve them directly. Cognitive resources are too limited to think deeply about every issue. People focus their accuracy concerns on issues that involve them directly.

29. Copyright © 2004 by Allyn and Bacon Mood A sad mood Motivates people to acquire accurate attitudes about the situation at hand Warns of potential danger of making errors in immediate environment. A sad mood Motivates people to acquire accurate attitudes about the situation at hand Warns of potential danger of making errors in immediate environment.

30. Copyright © 2004 by Allyn and Bacon Done deals Desire to be unbiased and accurate is much stronger before a person makes a decision. After the decision, the accuracy motive fades in favor of the desire to feel good about the decision. Desire to be unbiased and accurate is much stronger before a person makes a decision. After the decision, the accuracy motive fades in favor of the desire to feel good about the decision.

31. Copyright © 2004 by Allyn and Bacon Unwelcome Information People tend not to expend cognitive effort looking for flaws in an argument that supports their beliefs. Those who encounter information that doesn't fit search for weaknesses they can use to form counterarguments. People tend not to expend cognitive effort looking for flaws in an argument that supports their beliefs. Those who encounter information that doesn't fit search for weaknesses they can use to form counterarguments.

32. Copyright © 2004 by Allyn and Bacon Expertise and Complexity People rely on the expertise of a communicator principally when the message is highly complex.

33. Copyright © 2004 by Allyn and Bacon Being Consistent

34. Copyright © 2004 by Allyn and Bacon Being Consistent Consistency principle - principle that people will change their attitudes, beliefs, perceptions, and actions to make them consistent with each other Consistency principle - principle that people will change their attitudes, beliefs, perceptions, and actions to make them consistent with each other

35. Copyright © 2004 by Allyn and Bacon Balance Theory We want to: Agree with people we like dislike Disagree with people we dislike Associate good things with good people Associate bad things with bad people. We want to: Agree with people we like dislike Disagree with people we dislike Associate good things with good people Associate bad things with bad people.

36. Copyright © 2004 by Allyn and Bacon  Cognitive system out of balance Uncomfortable tension Balance Theory To remove this tension, we will have to change something in the system.

37. Copyright © 2004 by Allyn and Bacon Abortion Abortion Mary Mary Rhoda Rhoda + - + Balance Theory Rhoda is strongly pro-choice. Mary is strongly pro-life. Rhoda considers Mary her best friend. Rhoda is strongly pro-choice. Mary is strongly pro-life. Rhoda considers Mary her best friend.

38. Copyright © 2004 by Allyn and Bacon Abortion Abortion Mary Mary Rhoda Rhoda - + - Balance Theory Rhoda could restore balance by changing her feeling about abortion.

39. Copyright © 2004 by Allyn and Bacon Abortion Abortion Mary Mary Rhoda Rhoda - + - Balance Theory Or she could restore balance by changing her feelings about her friend.

40. Copyright © 2004 by Allyn and Bacon Abortion Abortion Mary Mary Rhoda Rhoda + + + Balance Theory Or she could restore balance by changing Mary’s feelings about abortion.

41. Copyright © 2004 by Allyn and Bacon Cognitive Dissonance Theory Cognitive dissonance - unpleasant state of psychological arousal resulting from an inconsistency within one's important attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors

42. Copyright © 2004 by Allyn and Bacon Cognitive Dissonance Theory Counterattitudinal action - a behavior that is inconsistent with an existing attitude

43. Copyright © 2004 by Allyn and Bacon Cognitive Dissonance Theory In a study by Festinger and Carlsmith Students first performed a boring task (turning pegs in holes) Then were asked to tell another student it was interesting – and for this, they were paid either $1 or $20. In a study by Festinger and Carlsmith Students first performed a boring task (turning pegs in holes) Then were asked to tell another student it was interesting – and for this, they were paid either $1 or $20.

44. Copyright © 2004 by Allyn and Bacon Cognitive Dissonance Theory When later asked their attitudes toward the boring task: Those receiving $1 payment had come to see it as more enjoyable. Those receiving $20 hadn't changed their attitudes at all. When later asked their attitudes toward the boring task: Those receiving $1 payment had come to see it as more enjoyable. Those receiving $20 hadn't changed their attitudes at all.

45. Copyright © 2004 by Allyn and Bacon Cognitive Dissonance Theory Why? Dissonance theory explains: $20 provided adequate justification for misleading another student. $1 was insufficient justification, thus arousing dissonance. Changing beliefs about the task reduced the cognitive discomfort. Why? Dissonance theory explains: $20 provided adequate justification for misleading another student. $1 was insufficient justification, thus arousing dissonance. Changing beliefs about the task reduced the cognitive discomfort.

46. Copyright © 2004 by Allyn and Bacon Cognitive Dissonance Theory Postdecisional dissonance – the conflict one feels about a decision that could be wrong Just seconds after placing a bet, gamblers are more confident their horse will win (Knox & Inkster, 1968). Postdecisional dissonance – the conflict one feels about a decision that could be wrong Just seconds after placing a bet, gamblers are more confident their horse will win (Knox & Inkster, 1968).

47. Copyright © 2004 by Allyn and Bacon an action or decision that conflicts with an important aspect of the self. InitiationAmplificationMotivationReduction is seen as freely chosen. produces negative consequences that were foreseeable cannot be justified as due to strong rewards or threats cannot be withdrawn unpleasant arousal. change designed to remove the unpleasant arousal. Dissonance begins with: More dissonance arises when the action or decision: Dissonance is experienced as: Dissonance is reduced through:

48. Copyright © 2004 by Allyn and Bacon Arousal No arousal = no dissonance = no need to change Cooper, Zanna, and Taves – participants in an experiment who were given a tranquilizer (eliminating any dissonant arousal) did not change their opinions, even after writing a counter-attitudinal essay. No arousal = no dissonance = no need to change Cooper, Zanna, and Taves – participants in an experiment who were given a tranquilizer (eliminating any dissonant arousal) did not change their opinions, even after writing a counter-attitudinal essay.

49. Copyright © 2004 by Allyn and Bacon Preference for Consistency Sample scale items: 1.I prefer to be around people whose reactions I can anticipate. Strongly disagree = 1…Strongly agree = 9 2.It is important to me that my actions are consistent with my beliefs. Strongly disagree = 1…Strongly agree = 9 Sample scale items: 1.I prefer to be around people whose reactions I can anticipate. Strongly disagree = 1…Strongly agree = 9 2.It is important to me that my actions are consistent with my beliefs. Strongly disagree = 1…Strongly agree = 9

50. Copyright © 2004 by Allyn and Bacon Preference for Consistency 3.Even if my attitudes and actions seemed consistent to me, it would bother me if they did not seem consistent to others. Strongly disagree = 1… Strongly agree =9 4.It is important to me that those who know me can predict what I will do. Strongly disagree = 1… Strongly agree =9 3.Even if my attitudes and actions seemed consistent to me, it would bother me if they did not seem consistent to others. Strongly disagree = 1… Strongly agree =9 4.It is important to me that those who know me can predict what I will do. Strongly disagree = 1… Strongly agree =9

51. Copyright © 2004 by Allyn and Bacon Preference for Consistency 5.I want to be described by others as a stable, predictable person. Strongly disagree = 1… Strongly agree =9 6.The appearance of consistency is an important part of the image I present to the world. Strongly disagree = 1… Strongly agree =9 5.I want to be described by others as a stable, predictable person. Strongly disagree = 1… Strongly agree =9 6.The appearance of consistency is an important part of the image I present to the world. Strongly disagree = 1… Strongly agree =9

52. Copyright © 2004 by Allyn and Bacon Preference for consistency 7.An important requirement for a friend of mine is personal consistency. Strongly disagree = 1… Strongly agree = 9 8.I typically prefer to do things the same way. Strongly disagree = 1… Strongly agree = 9 7.An important requirement for a friend of mine is personal consistency. Strongly disagree = 1… Strongly agree = 9 8.I typically prefer to do things the same way. Strongly disagree = 1… Strongly agree = 9

53. Copyright © 2004 by Allyn and Bacon Preference for Consistency 9.I want my close friends to be predictable. Strongly disagree = 1… Strongly agree = 9 10.I make an effort to appear consistent to others. Strongly disagree = 1… Strongly agree = 9 9.I want my close friends to be predictable. Strongly disagree = 1… Strongly agree = 9 10.I make an effort to appear consistent to others. Strongly disagree = 1… Strongly agree = 9

54. Copyright © 2004 by Allyn and Bacon Consequences The more impact your behavior has had on the world, the more you will feel motivated to change your attitudes to fit the behavior.

55. Copyright © 2004 by Allyn and Bacon Consequences If you are on a committee that recommends a harsh penalty for a fellow student accused of cheating on a math test, You will maintain your negative opinion of that student more to the extent that the consequence is expulsion from school as opposed to a lowered grade in the math class. If you are on a committee that recommends a harsh penalty for a fellow student accused of cheating on a math test, You will maintain your negative opinion of that student more to the extent that the consequence is expulsion from school as opposed to a lowered grade in the math class.

56. Copyright © 2004 by Allyn and Bacon Salience of the Inconsistency Factors that make inconsistency more salient will enhance dissonance.

57. Copyright © 2004 by Allyn and Bacon Consistency with What? Different ads appeal to different self- related motives in different cultures. Han & Shavitt (1994) asked Americans and Koreans to rate advertisements that suggested either Personal benefits (“treat yourself”) OR Group benefits (“share an experience”) Different ads appeal to different self- related motives in different cultures. Han & Shavitt (1994) asked Americans and Koreans to rate advertisements that suggested either Personal benefits (“treat yourself”) OR Group benefits (“share an experience”)

58. Copyright © 2004 by Allyn and Bacon Americans had a more favorable reaction to ads stressing personal benefits +20 +10 -10 -20 -30 U.S. Rating of Product: Personal Benefit Group Benefit Ad Focus: +30 Korea esearch Koreans had a more favorable reaction to ads stressing group benefits

59. Copyright © 2004 by Allyn and Bacon Gaining Social Approval

60. Copyright © 2004 by Allyn and Bacon Gaining Social Approval Impression motivation – the motivation to achieve approval by making a good impression on others. This motivation to create a good impression can sometimes conflict with the pursuit of the accuracy and consistency goals. Impression motivation – the motivation to achieve approval by making a good impression on others. This motivation to create a good impression can sometimes conflict with the pursuit of the accuracy and consistency goals.

61. Copyright © 2004 by Allyn and Bacon Self-Monitoring High self-monitors were more persuaded by ads promoting socially appealing images associated with particular brands of coffee, whiskey, and cigarettes than by ads touting the quality of the same brands (Snyder and DeBono). High self-monitors were more persuaded by ads promoting socially appealing images associated with particular brands of coffee, whiskey, and cigarettes than by ads touting the quality of the same brands (Snyder and DeBono).

62. Copyright © 2004 by Allyn and Bacon Gender Like high self-monitors, women tend to be sensitively attuned to relationships and interpersonal issues. This sensitivity affects the way they respond to persuasive appeals. Like high self-monitors, women tend to be sensitively attuned to relationships and interpersonal issues. This sensitivity affects the way they respond to persuasive appeals.

63. Copyright © 2004 by Allyn and Bacon The Expectation of Discussion People who expect to discuss a topic tend to hold more moderate opinions. Opinion shifts designed to create a good impression can become lasting when the process of shifting causes people to think about the topic in a different way. People who expect to discuss a topic tend to hold more moderate opinions. Opinion shifts designed to create a good impression can become lasting when the process of shifting causes people to think about the topic in a different way.

64. Copyright © 2004 by Allyn and Bacon Self-Monitoring and Expectation of Discussion When expecting a discussion, high self-monitors (who pay more attention to social rewards) shift their attitudes and beliefs more than do low self-monitors.