1. X Linguistics and Foreign Languages Teaching

2. Relation between linguistics and Language Teaching Theoretical views of lg explicitly or implicitly inform the approaches and methods adopted in lg teaching. Linguistics, as the science of lg, should be of fundamental importance for teachers of lg. 1. Lg teachers need a theory of lg on order to teach lg effectively. 2. Lg teachers must present the real lg and the entire lg, not merely its phonology, lexicon or syntax. To discover the real lg and to obtain some understanding of it, lg teachers may well turn to linguistics. 3. Lg teachers should draw on linguists’ achievements.

3. Linguistics and Language Learning Linguistics has always played an important role in the studies of languages acquisition and learning. Many lg learning theories are proposed based on certain linguistic theories. Knowledge in linguistics lies at the root of understanding what lg learners can learn, how they actually learn and what they learn ultimately.

4. Grammar and lg learning Should we or how can we include grammar in second lg instruction? Focus on forms vs. focus on meanings: two extremes. Focus on form: a balanced view on the role of grammar. Although lg learning should generally be meaning-focused and communication-oriented, it is still necessary and beneficial to focus on form occasionally.

5. Problems in the practice of focus on form What elements of lg are most amenable to focus on form? Amenability: the possibility that a particular lg item can be changed with learning. Two variables: 1.“Universal Grammar” If a L2 structure is part of UG, the amenability is high, otherwise, it is low. In focus on form, different measures are taken depending on whether the amenability is high or low. But the problem is, no one knows for sure what exactly is part of UG. It is here we need knowledge of linguistics. Knowledge of linguistic universals may help shape L2 acquisition in a number of ways.

6. 2. Complexity of lg structure It can be assumed that less complex structures have higher amenability, but complexity is hard to define. Formally simple structures can be functionally complex, and formally complex structures are not necessarily functionally complex. Thus we need to resort to linguistics for an explanation.

7. Grammar has its due value in lg learning. The problem is that we do not know enough about grammar or we even do not agree on what grammar is. One possible reason why grammar-based lg learning and teaching fails is that no reliable model of grammar is available. Despite the various theories, there is still no precise information obtained concerning how grammar can be learned. Therefore, the problem is not that SLA researchers and teachers have been unable to make an informed choice among the grammar models but there is no satisfactory models.

8. Krashen’s INPUT HYPOTHESIS （输入理论） Learners acquire lg as a result of comprehending input addressed to him or her. “i+1” principle: the lg that learners are exposed to should be just far enough beyond their current competence so that they can understand most of it, but still be challenged to make progress. Input should neither be so far beyond their reach that they are overwhelmed, nor so close to their current stage that they are not challenged at all.

9. Interlanguage in lg learning Output is also important in promoting lg acquisition.Correct production requires learners to construct lg for heir message. When learners construct lg for expression, they are not merely reproducing what they have learned,. Rather they are processing and constructing things. Constructivism: lg is socially constructed. Learners learn lg by cooperating, negotiating and performing all kinds of tasks. In other words, they construct lg in certain social and cultural contexts.

10. Interlanguage: the type of lg constructed by second or foreign lg learners who are still in the process of learning a lg. It is often understood as a lg system between the target lg and the learner’s native lg. It is imperfect compared to the target lg, but it is not merely translation from the native lg. However, interlanguage is a dynamic lg system, which is constantly moving from the departure level to the native-like level..

11. It is believed that lg learning will successfully take place when lg learners know how and when to use lg in various settings and when they have successfully cognized various forms of competence such as grammatical and pragmatic competence. Communicative language teaching ( 交际教学 法 ) ， Task-based language teaching( 任务型语 言教学 ) Tasks: real world tasks and pedagogical tasks

12. Drawbacks 1. Overemphasize the role of external factors in the process of lg acquisition and gives little importance to internal learning process. 2. Similar to behavioristic view of lg acquisition that environmental factors and input are at the very center in attempting to explicate the acquisition process. 3. Overstresses the role of knowledge of competence and functions in acquiring a lg, and hence fails to notice universal principles that guide lg acquisition.

13. Types of syllabus

14. Task-based syllabus Concerned with classroom processes which simulates learning. It consists of a list of specification of the tasks and activities that the learners will engage in class in the target lg. Two tasks: real-world, and pedagogical task A task is an activity which requires learners to use lg, with emphasis on meaning, to attain an objective. Or, an activity in which students use the target lg to do sth, usu. With a non-linguistic purpose.

15. Principles to follow 1. A task should have a clear purpose 2. Should have some degree of resemblance to real world events 3. Should involve information seeking, processing and conveying 4. Should involve the students in some models of doing things 5. should involve the meaning-focused use of lg. 6. Should end with a tangible products Components of syllabus (p. 285)

16. Contrastive analysis and error analysis The native lg plays important roles in the course of second lg acquisition Language transfer: the psychological process whereby prior learning is carried over into a new learning situation; or the influence resulting from similarities and differences between the target lg and any other lg that has been previously acquired. It studies the roles that native lg plays.

17. Contrastive analysis It is a way of comparing lgs in order to determine potential errors for the ultimate purpose of isolating what need to be learned and what does not need to be learned in a L2 learning situation. The goal is to predict what areas will be easy to learn and what will be difficult. r.

18. The procedure of error analysis Recognition: grammatically incorrect—an error --Grammatically correct—appropriate in context--- no---mistakes Description: correct sentence– native lg Explanation: hypothesis about psychological process Problems with error analysis: inadequate to study howL2 is learned, both errors and non- errors; difficult to determine what an error is; overstress production data and fails to account for error avoidance.