1. Genetic Mutations & Genetic Engineering Ch. 12-4 (pgs. 307-308) Ch. 13-2 thru 13-4 (pgs. 322-333)

2. 12-4 Mutations Mutations= Changes in genetic material 2 Types of mutations : Chromosomal and Gene Gene Mutations= Changes to the codons & genetic message Point Mutations: Caused by changes in one or a few nucleotides EX: substitutions, insertions or deletions

3. 12-4 Mutations Gene Mutations Cont… Frameshift Mutations: Occur from insertions or deletions because they shift the “reading frame” of the genetic message. They never occur from substitutions Chromosomal Mutations: Involve changes in the # or structure of chromosomes: EX: Inversions, duplications, deletions & translocations Some neither help nor harm, some are beneficial for genetic variation, some cause disorders and cancer

4. 13-2 Manipulating DNA Scientists have discovered how to use their knowledge of DNA to study & change DNA molecules EX: Extract DNA from cells, cut DNA into smaller pieces, identify sequence of bases in DNA, make unlimited copies of DNA

5. 13-2 Manipulating DNA Genetic Engineering: Making changes in the DNA code of a living organism. Occurs by: DNA Extraction: The cells are opened & DNA is separated from other cell parts Cutting DNA: Uses restrictions enzymes to cut specific sequences of nucleotides creating “sticky ends” that will match up with complimentary bases

6. 13-2 Manipulation DNA Restriction enzyme cutting DNA between Guanine & Adenine

7. 13-2 Manipulation DNA Separating DNA= Commonly done by gel electrophoresis. Electric volts applied to DNA cause negative DNA fragments to move to positive ends of the gel EX: 2 DNA samples showing identical bands of the same size and thickness show: same amount of DNA, fragments of the same size, the same DNA molecules Locates specific genes, compares genetic composition like paternity tests

8. 13-2 Manipulation DNA Knowing the sequence of an Organisms DNA allows scientists to study specific genes Reading DNA Sequences= Enzymes trigger DNA replication by adding nitrogenous bases (A,T,G,C) to an unknown single-stranded DNA template Uses fluorescent dyes to label the different nitrogenous bases & stop replication Uses nucleotide bases to trigger & stop replication Uses gel electrophoresis to show DNA bands

9. 13-2 Manipulating DNA Making Copies: Uses PCR (polymerase chain reaction). Triggers DNA replication by using complimentary “primers” added to single- stranded DNA molecule that scientist wants to copy DNA polymerase makes copies of the area between the two primers

10. 13-3 Cell Transformation Transformation: A cell takes in DNA from outside the cell Plasmid: Foreign DNA formed into a small circular DNA molecule. Used to incorporate foreign DNA into bacteria that will replicate allow it to be replicated Genetic Marker: Gene that makes it possible to distinguish bacteria that carry plasmids from those that don’t. EX: Gene for antibiotic resistance is used to select for bacteria that carry plasmids when that antibiotic is added

11. 13-3 Cell Transformation Transforming Plant Cells Can Occur 3 Ways: Use bacteria that are able to insert plasmids into the plant Remove plant cell walls so plasmid DNA is taken in by the nucleus Insert DNA directly into the cell

12. Cell Transformation Transforming Animal Cells Can Occur By: DNA injected directly into the nucleus Enzymes help injected DNA become incorporated in the cell’s chromosomes Foreign DNA contains genetic markers that to determine which genes have been transformed

13. 13-4 Applications of Genetic Engineering Transgenic Organism: Organism that contains genes from other species Scientists use Genetic Engineering to make transgenic organisms

14. 13-4 Applications of Genetic Engineering Transgenic Microorganisms: bacteria transformed w/ human genes produce pharmaceutical compounds like insulin Transgenic Animals: Have been used to study how human genes function EX: Mice are created with human-like immune systems Transgenic Plants: Have been important to increasing the food supply. EX : Plants have genes that code for natural insecticides

15. 13-4 Applications of Genetic Engineering Clone: Member of a population of genetically identical cells produced from a single cell. EX: a bacterium taken from a bacterial colony First Mammal cloned was Dolly- a sheep cloned in Scotland in 1997