1. KEY CONCEPT DNA structure is the same in all organisms.

2. We love D N A
Made of nucleotides
Sugar, Phosphate and a Base
Bonded down one Side
Adenine and Thymine
Make a Lovely Pair
Cytosine without Guanine
Would feel very bare
O-O-O deoxy-ribo-nucleic acid
R-N-A is ribo-nucleic acid

3. DNA is made up of a long chain of nucleotides.
Each nucleotide has three parts.
a sugar – deoxyribose
phosphate group
a nitrogen-containing base
phosphate group
deoxyribose (sugar)
nitrogen-containing
base

4. The nitrogen containing bases
- Adenine (A)
- Thymine (T)
- Cytosine (C)
- Guanine (G))
* Purines – have 2 rings = Adenine & Guanine
* Pyrimidines – have 1 ring = Cytosine & Thymine

5. Watson and Crick determined the three-dimensional structure of DNA
1953
Two nucleotide chains that wrap around each other to form a double spiral (double helix)
- Temperature liable – a change in T can break apart the DNA strand

6. Rosalind Franklin and Erwin Chargaff.
Franklin’s x-ray images suggested that DNA was a double helix of even width.
Chargaff’s - Complementary Base Pairing - A=T and C=G.

7. Nucleotides always pair in the same way.
Because a pyrimidine (single ring) pairs with a purine (double ring), the helix has a uniform width.
A-T
C-G C G T A

8. The backbone is connected by covalent bonds.
The bases are connected by hydrogen bonds.
hydrogen bond
covalent bond

9. 8.3 DNA Replication
KEY CONCEPT DNA replication copies the genetic information of a cell.

10. Replication copies the genetic information.
8.3 DNA Replication
Replication copies the genetic information.
The rules of base pairing direct replication.
A-T
G-C
DNA is replicated during the S stage of interphase.

11. Proteins (Enzymes) carry out the process of replication.
8.3 DNA Replication
Proteins (Enzymes) carry out the process of replication.
DNA serves as a template.
Helicase – enzyme that breaks the Hydrogen bonds between the bases
Replication Fork – point at which the two chains separate (last bond broken)
nucleotide
The DNA molecule unzips in both directions.

12. 8.3 DNA Replication
New complimentary nucleotide bases pair up on both sides of old DNA template
DNA polymerase (enzyme) forms new Hydrogen bonds between the nucleotides
DNA polymerase
new strand
nucleotide

13. 8.3 DNA Replication
Two new exact copies of DNA are formed, each with an original strand and a newly formed strand.
original strand
new strand
Two molecules of DNA

14. Replication is fast and accurate.
8.3 DNA Replication
Replication is fast and accurate.
DNA replication starts at many points in eukaryotic chromosomes.
There are many origins of replication in eukaryotic chromosomes.
Mutation – change in the nucleotide sequence
DNA polymerases can find and correct errors.
Error Rate - one error per 1 billion nucleotides

15. 8.4 Transcription RNA differs from DNA in three major ways.
1. RNA has a ribose sugar.
2. RNA has uracil instead of thymine.
U - A
3. RNA is a single-stranded structure.

16. 8.4 Transcription Three types of RNA.
Mesenger RNA (mRNA) – single uncoiled chain–
carries genetic information from the DNA in the nucleus to the cytoplasm
Transfer RNA (tRNA) – single chain of about 80
RNA nucleotides folded into a hairpin shape –
binds to specific amino acids
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) – makes up the ribosomes where proteins are made

17. 8.4 Transcription Process of copying DNA into mRNA
RNA polymerase – starts RNA transcription by binding to specific regions of DNA
Promoters
RNA polymerase breaks H-bonds and makes H-bonds between the DNA bases
One chain is used as a template to build RNA (mRNA=transcript)
Transcription continues one nucleotide at a time until the RNA polymerase reaches a DNA region
termination signal
start site
nucleotides
transcription complex

18. The transcription process is similar to replication.
The two processes have different end results.
Replication copies all the DNA; transcription copies a gene.
growing RNA strands
DNA
one
gene

19. 8.5 Translation
KEY CONCEPT Translation converts an mRNA message into a protein.

20. Amino acids are coded by mRNA base sequences.
8.5 Translation
Amino acids are coded by mRNA base sequences.
Codon – 3 nucleotides of mRNA
AUG = start
UAA, UAG, UGA = stop
codon for
methionine (Met)
leucine (Leu)

21. 8.5 Translation
The genetic code matches each codon to its amino acid

22. 8.5 Translation tRNA – transports amino acids to the ribosomes
Anticodon – tRNA sequence of 3 nucleotides
complementary to an mRNA codon.

23. 8.5 Translation
Ribosomes that are attached to the endoplasmic reticulum build proteins for use outside cell
Ribosomes that are free floating make proteins for use inside cell

24. 8.5 Translation
For translation to begin - Ribosomes attaches to a start codon on mRNA (AUG)
Start codon pairs with the anticodon on tRNA (UAC)
codes for the first amino acid – methionine – may be removed later if not needed

25. 8.5 Translation
Amino acids are bonded together with peptide bonds

26. 8.5 Translation
Once the stop codon is reached, the ribosome releases the protein

27. 8.6 Gene Expression and Regulation
KEY CONCEPT Gene expression is carefully regulated in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.

28. 8.6 Gene Expression and Regulation
A promotor is a DNA segment that allows a gene to be transcribed.
An operator is a part of DNA that turns a gene “on” or ”off.”
The lac operon was one of the first examples of gene regulation to be discovered.
The lac operon has three genes that code for enzymes that break down lactose.

29. 8.6 Gene Expression and Regulation
RNA processing is also an important part of gene regulation in eukaryotes.
Introns are nucleotides that are removed and exons nucleotides that are spliced together.

30. 8.6 Gene Expression and Regulation
Coding DNA (genes)  make proteins
Humans = 20,000
Non-coding DNA (genes)  make RNA (transcribed but never translated)
Human = 500
Human Total = ~ 20,500 genes