1. Problems of Evidence Historiography - Mistranslations - Anachronisms - Pet Theories Gaps in Evidence Decoding Ancient Texts Reliability of Evidence - Bias - Conflicting Evidence

2. Problems of Evidence There are many problems that historians and archaeologist’s encounter when trying to reconstruct the past.

3. Gaps in Evidence Because a great deal of evidence from the ancient past has been destroyed, there are often significant gaps in the historical and archaeological record. Some material is discovered in very bad condition, making it difficult to draw conclusions from, especially if it is the only source of its kind. Eg. The Turin Canon from ancient Egypt is a list of Pharaoh’s on papyrus. Because of it’s condition, many names are missing making it difficult to work out the sequence of rulers. Since information (especially from written sources) is primarily about the upper classes in ancient society, there is a lack of information about the “regular” people of a society.

4. The Turin Cannon

5. Decoding Ancient Texts Some ancient writings are not spoken or written today. These are more difficult to ‘decode’ such as the scripts of the ancient Maya of South America, whose writing is still to be decoded. Clues to decode an ancient language can be found in other known languages or for something that indicates what a letter or symbol might mean. Eg. Rosetta Stone from ancient Egypt recovered in 1799 by French scholars. It was written in 3 texts, two forms of Egyptian and one in Greek. This stone made it possible for Jean-Francois Champollion to reveal the secrets of the ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics.

6. The Rosetta Stone

7. Historiography Historiography is the study of the way history is written. That means: examining different writers, their viewpoints and perspectives. In other words…. it is the study of the opinions of the historian, and their influence in reconstructing the past.

8. Mistranslations Problems with the translation of language. Although languages of the past can be translated / interpreted, mistranslations can occur which affect our understanding of the past.

9. Stela with Mayan inscriptions

10. Anachronism Anything that is out of place in time or context. Eg. Roman soldier wearing a watch. Modern or specific cultural terms / expressions used in translations.

11. Scene from the movie “Ben Hur”

13. Pet Theories How historians / archaeologists choose a theory / hypothesis about the past. Can lead to the selection of sources / evidence to prove a theory while ignoring evidence that may question it.

14. Bias What is bias? A one-sided view of an historical event or argument. Favours one side of a particular point of view. Can bias sources be useful? Yes. It shows that particular point of view, and can give insight into the authors perspective / feelings about an historical issue.

15. Bias What types of Bias are there? Deliberate > leaving out information or using emotive language. Limited access > to evidence can lead to a one sided account. Prejudice > against race, class, gender or religion. Personal > The author writes based on their personal feelings. Political > The author writes for a particular political purpose. Gender > Male domination of history.

16. The Roman Emperor Caligula