1. Sociology of Religion

2. Religion as a Conservative Force Functionalism Durkheim studied Totemism among Australian aborigines. Religion is a distinction between the sacred and the profane. In worshipping the totem, individuals are worshipping society. Belief in God is an acknowledgement that society is more important than the individual. Religion forges group identity, creates cohesion and reaffirms social solidarity.

3. Functions of Religion in Modern Society Socialization – religion socializes members into a value consensus by attaching a sacred quality to values. Integration – collective worship strengthens group unity, restraining deviant behaviour. Civil Religion – ritual and ceremony are common aspects of national loyalties. Preventing Anomie – Integration and restrained behaviour prevents a state of confusion and normlessness. Life Changing Events – Malinowksi and Parsons believe religion relieves the stress of life crises.

4. Criticisms of Functionalism Religion cannot socialize us if we do not believe – church attendance figures are declining. Durkheim’s analysis is based on flawed evidence and he misunderstood totemism and the Australian aborigines. Religion is sometimes dysfunctional and often causes global conflicts, e.g. Northern Ireland. Modern societies are multicultural and multifaith – there is no one unifying force. Many people worship privately rather than collectively – this does not reaffirm group identity.

5. Religion as a Conservative Force Marxism Religion is an ideological apparatus; an instrument of social control and exploitation. Religion acts as an ‘opium of the people’ – a pacifying drug that numbs the pain. Marx and Engels’ Functions of Religion: Legitimating social inequality Disguising the true nature of exploitation Keeps the working classes passive and resigned to their fate.

6. Religion as a Force for Social Change Weber: the Protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism. Calvinists were a Protestant group who believed in predestination; their fate was fixed. Material success and hard work demonstrated God’s favour and a place in heaven. Calvinists believed in asceticism. Their hard work and attitudes helped initiate Western economic development and Capitalism.

7. Criticism of Weber Countries with a large Calvinist population such as Sweden did not industrialise like Britain. Slavery, colonialism and piracy were more important than Calvinist beliefs. Kautsky: capitalism predates Calvinism but Calvinism made their interests appear legitimate.

8. Why do some Religions Encourage Social Change? Belief – religions that emphasize strong moral codes are more likely to produce members who will be critical and challenge social injustice. Culture – change is easier through religion when religion is central to the culture of society, e.g. Ghandi. Social Location – wide scope for influence when religion plays a major role in political and economic life. Organization – religions with a strong centralized source of authority have more chance of affecting events.

9. Religion and Radical Change Liberation Theology is a fusion of Christianity and Marxism, popular from the 1960’s in Latin America. It is a Christian duty to be involved in any action leading to economic and political liberation.

10. Organized Religion Churches are national, inclusive and have a large membership. They are hierarchical, have a professional clergy and a lifespan of centuries. Churches accept society’s norms and values and require little formal commitment. Denominations are national, with professional clergy and have a lifespan of over a century. They are seen as a basis of non- conformist views and require stronger commitment. Sects are small in size and often have on charismatic leader. They are critical of mainstream society and are reclusive, with their own norms and values. Sects require exceptional commitment. Cults vary in size and have a loose structure. They are individualistic and often have an inspirational leader. Cults are often short-lived and die with the leadership. Membership is flexible.

11. Fundamentalism Fundamentalism is a counterresponse to internal secularization. ‘Back to basics’ approach in order to restore traditional moral values. Both Islamic and Christian fundamentalism have grown over the past 30 years in response to modernizing governments and globalization. Westernization may be seen as a threat to less developed countries. Holden – these movements offer hope, direction and certainty in an insecure, confusing and morally lost world.

12. Gender, Feminism and Religion Women see God as a God of love, comfort and forgiveness. Men see God as a God of power and control. Christianity is inherently patriarchal with men made ‘in the image and glory of God and women made ‘for the glory of man’. Primary roles in the Bible are reserved for males. Prominent females in the Bible reinforce patriarchal ideas. The Qur’an states that ‘men are in charge of women’.

13. Sexuality and Religion Women’s bodies are seen as dangerous by many religions. Because they menstruate and give birth they are considered to have a greater capacity to ’pollute’ religious rituals. Also, their presence may distract men from worship. Turner: widespread importance given to asceticism – self disciplined existence in which pleasure is repressed. The presence of women makes this difficult.

14. Are Women more Religious? Women are more likely to express interest in religion, have personal religious commitment and attend church more often. Two explanations for such gender differences: Differential Socialization – females taught to be submissive, passive, obedient and nurturing. Differential Roles – greater need for religious as a source of identity and commitment.

15. Religion and Ethnicity Immigrants to Britain place higher importance on religion than the long-established population... Weber: this is because they are members of deprived groups. Religion provides explanations and salvation. Durkheim: this is because religion helps bond new communities, particularly when under threat.

16. Differences in Religion for Migrants African Caribbean – religion is used as a means of coping with the worries of life through the joyful nature of prayer. It is used to develop love, trust, morals and responsibilities. Children decide their commitment for themselves. Asian – see religion in terms of duty and routine. Asians adopt a collective, conformist approach. They’re brought up not to betray family. Their religion affects food, drink, dress, partner and attitudes.

17. Defining Secularization Wilson: the process whereby religious thinking, practises and institutions lose social significance. Glasner: 3 levels of secularization – Interpersonal, Organizational and Cultural. Substantive Religion – belief in God and the supernatural. Functional Religion – what functions religion performs.

18. Evidence for Secularization Attendance – 1851 Census = 40%, 2000 Census = 7.5%. Brierly: age bias – congregations may totally die out. Reduced moral influence – as seen in rising divorce rates. Bruce: lower status of clergy, for example, women being ordained reduces the status in itself.

19. Evidence for Secularization Wilson: Rationalization, disengagement and religious pluralism. Rationalization: rational thinking in the form of science has replaced religious influence in our lives. Disengagement: separation of the church from wider society; no longer involved in politics etc. Religious Pluralism: society has fragmented into a marketplace of religions and there is no longer one unifying religious force.

20. Evidence against Secularization Davie: vicarious religion or ‘believing without belonging’, where people practise privately. Belief – only 10% say that they don’t believe in God, according to the British Social Attitudes survey. People prefer religious explanations for life events. For example, the concept luck/fate shows how gambling has increased. Religious programming is still very popular – Songs of Praise attracts around 7-8 million viewers. Hamilton: decline in membership reflects a more general decline, not just in religion (politics etc).

21. Evidence against Secularization Stark and Bainbridge: religion can never disappear because people always want to be rewarded; religious compensators are needed. Greeley: religious pluralism is a religious revival. Berger: the world is more religious than it ever has been. Heelas: ‘holistic milieu’ is a rejection of science and modernity where people want spirituality, as shown by New Age Movements.