1. Early Theories of Leadership
Chapter 6
Early Theories of Leadership
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2. Chapter Objectives After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the early research on leadership traits, describe the research methods used, and explain why many of the early studies were contradictory or inconclusive.
Explain the University of Michigan and the Ohio State leadership models.
Describe the bi-axis leadership model developed by Blake and Mouton (the Leadership Grid®), and explain the five primary management styles identified in this model.
Explain some practical implications for leaders of both the trait approach and the behavior approach.
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3. Trait Theories of Leadership
Trait Research from 1904 TO 1947
Research, encouraged by the need to identify potential military leaders, that sought to answer the question “What makes a leader?”
Attempted unsuccessfully to identify a single trait or universal cluster of traits that would differentiate leaders from followers.
Found a number of positive correlations for individual traits.
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4. Trait Theories of Leadership (cont’d)
Trait Research from 1948 to 1970
Multivariate experiments and factor analysis became the basic research tools in the study of trait and leadership consequences.
Leadership was now considered to to be based on complex groupings of traits and social interactions, rather than on a single trait or a small cluster of traits
More research was now being conducted inside work organizations.
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5. Reflective Question ▼ What do you think makes for an effective leader?
List three present-day leaders you know about, along with the special attributes that you believe each possesses.
Compare your list of special qualities with those of your peers and try to reach agreement on a “master list.”
How many of the attributes on the master list match those listed in Table 6.1?
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6. Selective Leadership Attributes According to Stogdill’s 1948 and 1974 Survey
Source: Based on Stogdill, R. M. (1974). Handbook of Leadership: A Survey of Theory and Research. New York: Free Press.
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Table 6.1

7. Traits Associated with Effective Leadership
High energy levels
Strong internal locus of control
Self-confidence
Emotional maturity
Integrity
Need for power
Moderately high achievement orientation
Moderately low need for social affiliation
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8. Applying the Trait Approach
Assessment centers put potential leaders through a series of standardized individual and group exercises to evaluate specific personal traits and skills associated with leadership.
Accuracy in the prediction of management advancement (leadership potential) is increased when the person has a job situation favorable to individual development.
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9. View CD
On the CD-ROM, click on Learning Resources and complete one of the self-assessment questionnaires under the “Understanding Leadership” heading.
The questionnaires have no right or wrong answers; they are designed to predict leadership potential and provide a stimulus for personal reflection and discussion.
How many leadership traits do you possess?
How helpful are such tests in predicting leadership potential?
Is it possible to compensate for an apparent absence of a leadership trait?
What assumptions underpin the questions?
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10. Evaluating The Trait Approach
Weaknesses of the Trait Perspective
Trait research neglects the contexts (situations) within which leaders and followers find themselves.
The trait approach does not recognize the importance and influence of followers in the leadership process.
Most research on leadership traits is culturally determined in that traits considered desirable in effective leaders in one culture may not be desirable in another culture.
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11. Early Behavior Theories of Leadership
Behavioral Leadership Theory
Emphasizes leaders’ behaviors (i.e., what leaders do) in considering leadership as an activity.
Examines the managerial or leadership style of the leader’s behavior towards followers.
Task-oriented behaviors focus on meeting targets and accomplishing goals.
Relationship-oriented behaviors are actions taken to establish, maintain, and direct relationships with followers.
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12. Research Studies on Leadership
Boys’ Club Studies (1939)
Autocratic leaders are most effective overall in getting out production.
Democratic leaders are best at creating job satisfaction and fostering higher unsupervised employee output.
Laissez-faire leaders are least effective on both accounts.
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13. Research Studies on Leadership
University of Michigan Studies
Focused on the effect of the leader’s behavior or style on the performance of followers.
Production-oriented leaders emphasize the production and technical aspects of work.
Employee-oriented leaders focus on employees and have a strong human relations approach to dealing with employees.
Managers have persistent styles that are not easily changed.
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14. Research Studies on Leadership (cont’d)
Ohio State Studies
Used the Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire (LBDQ) to investigate how leaders behaved when in charge of a work group or a work organization.
Identified two independent dimensions of leader behavior:
Initiating structure: defining and organizing work relationships and roles; setting clear patterns of communication and ways of completing tasks.
Consideration: Nurturing working relationships and encouraging mutual trust and respect between leader and followers.
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15. Research Studies on Leadership (cont’d)
Four General Leadership Styles (Likert)
Exploitative-authoritative
Benevolent-authoritative
Consultative
Participative
The key dimension of leadership behaviors differentiating these styles is the amount of empowerment or participation the leader allows followers in the decision-making process.
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16. Four-Quadrant Model for Categorizing Leadership Styles
Source: Based on Stogdill, R. M., and Coons, A. E. (eds.). (1957). Leader Behavior: Its Description and Measurement, Research Monograph No. 88. Columbus, OH: Bureau of Business Research, The Ohio State University.
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Figure 6.1

17. Reflective Question ▼
Think about a successful manager with whom you have worked or studied.
What pattern of effective behaviors did she or he exhibit?
To what extent, if at all, should leaders change their style to adapt to the characteristics and needs of their followers?
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18. Research Studies on Leadership (cont’d)
The Leadership Grid® (Blake and Mouton)
The main concerns of leaders are:
Concern for production.
Concern for people.
Contain five major leadership styles:
The authority-compliance leader (9, 1)
The team leader (9, 9)
The country club leader (1, 9)
The impoverished leader (1, 1)
The middle-of-the-road leader (5, 5)
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19. The Leadership Grid® Figure 6.2
Source: Blake, R. R., and McCanse, A. A. (1991). Leadership Dilemmas—Grid Solutions. Houston: Gulf Publishing Company, p. 29. Copyright © 1991, by Scientific Methods, Inc. Reproduced by permission of the owners.
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20. Evaluating the Behavior Approach
Criticisms of the Behavior Approach
The behavior approach, like the trait approach, has been unable to identify a universal style of leadership that is effective in the vast majority of situations.
The behavior approach suggesting the most universally effective leadership style is the high-high style—that is, high production and high people-oriented behavior.
Behavior theories do not adequately demonstrate how leaders’ behaviors are associated with performance outcomes in a complex reality.
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