1. Discourse – larger stretches of written or spoken text
Key Definitions
discourse analysis – the study of how features of written/spoken texts illustrate or enact their context and purpose
discourse structure – the way texts are organised into coherent wholes as well as linguistic patterns within texts.
TASK: rearrange the text on your worksheet so that it is in the right order. What textual features helped you do this? What generic conventions did you use to help you?
While we often assume that texts, particularly spoken texts, are organic and are even quite carelessly structured, discourse analysis enables us to see the structures which help text producers negotiate meaning, turns in dialogue etc.

2. What clues did you use to help you?
Conventional structure of newspaper stories?
Anaphoric constructions (phrases linking back to previous ideas)?
Increasing levels of narrative detail?
Temporal adverbials?
Other discourse markers (connectives that signal the order of ideas in a text)?

3. Written discourse structures
So what? Why do we need these structures, even if they are only unconscious?
The process known as foregrounding is where features which are unexpected become prominent.
Without expectations, unexpected features cannot be foregrounded.
Foregrounding is useful for emphasis.
Written discourse structures
Discourse structure
Key features
Examples
List/ instructions
Logical progression through stages, use of imperative verbs to instruct, guide
Recipes, instructions, guides, users’ manuals etc.
Problem-solution
Identify a problem
Advertisements for products
Analysis
Break down key ideas into constituent parts
Evaluates/explores
Academic articles, newspaper editorials
Narrative
Details a series of events, can be chronological or non-chronological
Novels, witness accounts

4. Discourse Analysis in monologues (We’ll be looking at multi-speaker interactions next lesson)
Labov’s narrative categories In 1972, the sociolinguist William Labov suggested a structure for explaining how speakers gave accounts of personal experiences, as a result of fieldwork he undertook in New York.

5. Labov’s narrative categories
Abstract (A)
An indication that the speaker wants a listener’s attenion and is signalling the start of the narrative.
Orientation (O)
The ‘who’, ‘where’, ‘what’ and ‘why’. This sets the scene and provides background information that the speaker sees as important.
Complicating Action (CA)
The main body of the narrative
Resolution (R)
The ending of the narrative that ties up loose ends and provides closure
Coda (C)
A signal that the narrative has ended

6. Labov’s narrative categories
Transcript of an account of weekend activities. (.) = micropause (1) longer pause – number indicates number of seconds’ pause
Abstract
Well (.) at the weekend I went to get my hair done at the salon (.) when I were there (.) I saw my friend who gave me an invitation for her wedding (1) it was lovely to see her (.) and a surprise to hear that she was getting married (.) which we will look forward going to in a couple of weeks (1) after that I went to the shops and did some shopping with my partner Craig (.) then we went home and had the very boring task of putting it all away (.) not my favourite thing to do (.) anyway that’s all really.
Orientation
Complicating Action
Complicating Action
Resolution
Coda

7. Labov’s narrative categories
Transcript of an account of weekend activities. (.) = micropause (1) longer pause – number indicates number of seconds’ pause
Well (.) at the weekend I went to get my hair done at the salon (.) when I were there (.) I saw my friend who gave me an invitation for her wedding (1) it was lovely to see her (.) and a surprise to hear that she was getting married (.) which we will look forward going to in a couple of weeks (1) after that I went to the shops and did some shopping with my partner Craig (.) then we went home and had the very boring task of putting it all away (.) not my favourite thing to do (.) anyway that’s all really.
Of the two examples of evaluation here, which is internal and which is external?
In addition, Labov suggested that speakers, at any point, could include evaluation – additions to the narrative that the speaker felt were worth mentioning.
Internal evaluations are expressions of attitude towards the events in the narrative that occur in the same frame as the main action.
External evaluations are expressions of attitude where the speaker ‘stands back’ from the main action.

8. Labov’s narrative categories
In addition, Labov suggested that speakers, at any point, could include evaluation – additions to the narrative that the speaker felt were worth mentioning.
Internal evaluations are expressions of attitude towards the events in the narrative that occur in the same frame as the main action.
External evaluations are expressions of attitude where the speaker ‘stands back’ from the main action.
Other types of evaluation include:
Intensifying evaluation – contributing vividness via gestures, repetitions or dramatic sounds
Fred ran into a wall – ouch!
Explicative evaluation – providing reasons for narrative events
Fred annoyed his mum, because he was always noisy.

9. Your turn: can you identify the narrative categories in this discourse?
Extension: What other language features are present?

10. Goodwin’s story structure
Many narratives, of course, are not told by a single speaker to an audience who do not participate in anyway.
The linguist Charles Goodwin (1984) proposed an alternative model for analysing narratives that highlights the interactive natures of story telling.

11. Goodwin’s story structure
Story preface
A signal that a speaker wants to tell a story and an invitation for others to show interest
Story solicit
A response from someone else to that they want to listen to the story
Preliminary to the story
Background information to the story in the form of ‘who’, ‘where’, ‘what’ and ‘why’
Story action
The main body of the narrative
Story climax
The conclusion of the narrative
Story appreciation
Signals from the audience that communicate their response to the narrative. This might be at several different points during the story and could consist of questions, agreements and laughter or other emotions,

12. Goodwin’s story structure TASK: can you apply this to the dialogue below?
well I’ve often found Rob rude B:
why (.) what has he done to you
do you (.) want (.) really want to know
yes tell me
OK (.) well (.) I had this new sofa and he just came in
yeah
put his feet all over it (.) you know we had only just got it
right
I told him (.) get your feet off (.) and he laughed
how rude
yeah (.) loser
haha [laughs]

13. Plenary As easy as
Discourse structure is how longer stretches of text are organised.
We use Labov’s narrative categories to analyse single-speaker narratives.
Goodwin’s story structure is an alternative to Labov’s.

14. Homework
Continue with your formal assignment.