1. SQL (DDL & DML Commands)

2. Modifying a Table (Alter Command)
To change the definition of the table.
This can be done by using ALTER TABLE command. This command may have one of the following clauses.
ADD| MODIFY| DROP

3. Alter Command The general syntax for the ALTER TABLE is as follows:
ALTER TABLE <table name>[ADD|MODIFY| DROP]
(Constraint | | column specification)

4. Alter Command (ADD)
ADD Clause: The ADD clause is used to add a column and/or constraints to an existing table.
To add a column say part_full_time to emp table, the syntax will be as follows:
ALTER TABLE emp ADD (part_full_time CHAR(1));
If this table is having some existing data corresponding to other columns, then it will take NULL for this column corresponding to those records.

5. Alter Command (ADD)
The following syntax will be executed only in that case if table is empty:
ALTER TABLE emp ADD (part_full_time CHAR (1) NOT NULL);
Otherwise error is generated.
Adding Multiple Columns:
ALTER TABLE emp ADD (part_time CHAR (1), full_time varchar(2));

6. MODIFY Clause
This clause is used to modify the column specifications and the constraints.
In case of constraints, only possibilities are to modify a NULL to NOT NULL and NOT NULL to NULL. Other constraints should be first deleted and then recreated with the modification.
Suppose we want to increase the width of a column, syntax is
 ALTER TABLE emp MODIFY (sal NUMBER(5));
It will increase the width of sal column from NUMBER(4) to NUMBER(5).
However, for decreasing the width of a column or changing the data type of the column, the column must not contain any data.

7. MODIFY Clause For modification in the constraint, the syntax is:
ALTER TABLE emp MODIFY(sal NUMBER(5) NOT NULL);
Now, sal column will become NOT NULL column.

8. DROP Clause
We can remove a column from table directly by using the DROP clause
For example,
ALTER TABLE emp DROP COLUMN part_full_time;
This will drop the part_full_time column from the table along with the data.
DROP TABLE emp; // To drop table along with data permanently.

9. DROP Clause To drop a constraint, the different syntaxes are
ALTER TABLE emp DROP CONSTRAINT chk_sal;
// To drop Check Constraint.
ALTER TABLE emp DROP PRIMARY KEY;
Or ALTER TABLE emp DROP constraint pk_empno;
//To drop primary key.

10. DROP Clause ALTER TABLE emp DROP PRIMARY KEY CASCADE;
//This command will drop all the dependencies of the Primary Key (i.e. the Foreign Key constraints in different table, which are based on this Primary Key) and then will drop this Primary key in a single step.

11. TRUNCATE Command
The SQL TRUNCATE TABLE command is used to delete complete data from an existing table but structure remains.
Syntax: TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;
DROP TABLE command delete complete table and remove complete table structure from the database, while TRUNCATE TABLE do not effect table structure .

12. COMMENT
Use the COMMENT statement to add a comment about a table, view or column into the data dictionary.
Example to add comment on table employee:
COMMENT ON TABLE employees IS 'abbreviated job title';

13. COMMENT
Example To insert an explanatory remark on the job_id column of the employees table, issue the following statement:
COMMENT ON COLUMN employees.job_id IS 'abbreviated job title';
To drop this comment from the database, issue the following statement:
COMMENT ON COLUMN employees.job_id IS ' ';

14. RENAME RENAME TABLE: RENAME TABLE tbl_name TO new_tbl_name;
Where tbl_name is table that exists in the current database, and new_tbl_name is new table name.
RENAME COLUMN: ALTER TABLE tablename RENAME COLUMN OldName TO NewNam

15. Data Manipulation Language (DML)
Data Manipulation Language (DML):- Data Manipulation Language contains the commands, which are used to manipulate the data in the tables. These commands include INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE, and SELECT.

16. INSERT Command
INSERT Command:- This command is used to insert rows into table. The basic syntax of this command is as given INSERT INTO <tablename> (Column1, Column2,…. Column n ) VALUES (Value1, Value2…., Value n) For example , INSERT INTO emp(empno, ename, job, sal, hiredate, deptno) (‘1’,’neha’, ‘student’, ‘34566’, 12-jul-2013,’cse’); This statement will add a new record in the emp table.

17. INSERT Command
When data is not to be entered into every column in the table, then either enter NULL corresponding to all those columns which do not require the value or specify only those columns which require a value.
Example: INSERT INTO emp(empno, ename, job, sal, hiredate, deptno) VALUES (‘1’,’neha’, ‘NULL’, ‘34566’, 12-jul-2013,’NULL’);
INSERT INTO emp(empno, ename, sal, hiredate) VALUES (‘1’,’neha’, ‘34566’, 12-jul-2013);

18. INSERT Command
One more style for INSERT command is without specifying column names as given in the following:
INSERT INTO emp VALUES (‘1’, ’neha’, ‘student’, ‘34566’, 12-jul-2013,’cse’);
In this case, values must be in the same sequence as specified at the table creation time.

19. Changing Table Contents
To change the value of a column or a group of columns in a table corresponding to some search criteria, UPDATE command is used.
Update can be used for:
All the rows from a table.
A select set of rows from a table.

20. Update Command The general syntax of this command is as:
UPDATE <tablename> SET <columnname1> = <newvalue1>, <columnname2> = <newvalue2> WHERE <search criteria>
For example to update the salary of king to 6000 in emp table, the statement is:
UPDATE emp SET sal = 6000 WHERE ename= ‘king’;

21. Update Command Ex2: Update the Net_sal column in emp table. Update emp
set Net_sal = Net_sal + basic_sal*0.15;

22. Deleting records from the table
Records from the table can be deleted individually or in groups by using DELETE Command. Delete can be used to:
Delete all rows from a table.
A select set of rows from a table.
The general syntax is :
DELETE FROM <tablename> WHERE <search condition>
 For example:
DELETE FROM emp WHERE deptno=10;
In absence of WHERE Clause, this syntax will delete all the records from the table. Ex: DELETE FROM emp;

23. Delete Command
The subqueries can also be used in DELETE Command for example, if we have to delete all the records from Accounts Department then the syntax will be as follows:
DELETE FROM emp where deptno IN (SELECT deptno from dept WHERE dname= ‘Accounts’);

24. SQL Select To view the global table data. To view filtered table data
Selected column and all rows
Selected rows and all columns
Selected columns and selected rows.

25. To view the global table data
Syntax:
Select * from table_name;
Select column1, column2………column n
from table_name;

26. To view filtered table data
Selected column and all rows
Select column1, column2
from table_name;
Selected rows and all columns
Select *
From tablename
Where <search condition>

27. To view filtered table data
Selected columns and selected rows
Select column1, column2
From tablename
Where <search condition>;

28. Arithmetic Operators
Create expressions with number and date data by using arithmetic operators.
Operator
Description +
Add -
Subtract *
Multiply /
Divide

29. Relational Operators = Equal to < or > Less than or greater than
<=
Less than or equal to
>=
Greater than or equal to
<>
Not equal to

30. Using Arithmetic Operators
SELECT last_name, salary, salary + 300
FROM employees; …

31. Operator Precedence … … 1 2 SELECT last_name, salary, 12*salary+100
FROM employees; 1 …
SELECT last_name, salary, 12*(salary+100)
FROM employees; 2 …

32. Select SELECT last_name, salary, salary + 300 "incremented sal"
FROM employees;
Column names will be incremented sal instead of salary in previous table.

33. Defining a Column Alias
Renames a column heading
Is useful with calculations
Immediately follows the column name (There can also be the optional AS keyword between the column name and alias.)
Requires double quotation marks if it contains spaces or special characters, or if it is case-sensitive

34. Using Column Aliases … … SELECT last_name AS name, commission_pct comm
FROM employees; …
SELECT last_name "Name" , salary*12 "Annual Salary"
FROM employees; …

35. To eliminate Duplicate Rows
The default display of queries is all rows, including duplicate rows.
Distinct is used for elimination of duplicate rows. 1 2
SELECT department_id
FROM employees;
SELECT DISTINCT department_id
FROM employees; … …

36. Logical Operators Logical Operators: AND OR NOT BETWEEN LIKE
IN and NOT IN

37. AND
The AND operator joins two or more conditions and displays a row only if that row’s data satisfies ALL conditions listed (i.e. all conditions hold true)
Example: to display all managers earning more than Rs, 3000.
SELECT * FROM emp WHERE desig =’Manager’ AND sal>3000;

38. OR
The OR operator joins two or more conditions, but return a rows if ANY of the conditions listed is true.
Project all those rows in which salary is less than 3000 or department number is 10:
  SELECT * FROM emp WHERE sal<3000
OR deptno=10;
AND and OR can be combined, for example
SELECT * FROM emp WHERE desig = ’Manager’
AND sal>3000 OR deptno =10

39. NOT
The oracle engine will process all rows in a table and display result only when none of the conditions specified using NOT operator are satisfied.
SELECT * FROM emp WHERE NOT(designation =‘Manager’ OR designation=‘Sales Person’);
This will retrieve all the employees who are other than Manager and Sales Person.

40. BETWEEN…. AND
To retrieve the data within a specified range of values, the BETWEEN operator is used.
BETWEEN operator can be used with both numeric and character data types.
The range coded after the word BETWEEN is inclusive.
For example
SELECT * FROM emp WHERE sal BETWEEN 5000 AND 10000;

41. NOT BETWEEN…. AND
We can also use NOT BETWEEN to exclude the above range.
Example: SELECT * FROM emp WHERE sal NOT BETWEEN 5000 AND 10000;
In that case it will display those employees who are getting less than 5000 or more than 10000(exclusive of both the values).

42. LIKE (Pattern matching)
It allows for a comparison of one string value with another string value which is not identical. We use two wildcards (% and _ ) for this purpose:
%: The percent sign matches any string.
_: The underscore matches any single character.

43. LIKE (Examples) SELECT * FROM emp WHERE ename LIKE ‘A%’;
 It gives the details of those employees whose name starts from character A. Example: Anu
SELECT * FROM emp WHERE ename LIKE ‘%a’;
It returns the rows in which the value in ename column ends with character ‘a’. Example: deepika
SELECT * FROM emp WHERE ename LIKE ‘%r%’;
It will display the information about those employees who include ‘r’ in their names.
Example: priya

44. LIKE (Example) SELECT * FROM emp WHERE ename LIKE ‘Taru_’;
 It will display the information of those employees where length of name is just five characters and first four letters include ‘T’ , ‘a’, ’r’, ‘u’ respectively.

45. Using the LIKE Condition
You can combine pattern-matching characters:
You can use the ESCAPE identifier to search for the actual % and _ symbols.
SELECT last_name
FROM employees
WHERE last_name LIKE '_o%' ;

46. IN and NOT IN
IN: To compare a list of values against a column, we have to use IN operator. While, ‘=‘ operator is used to compare a single value to another single value.
For example: SELECT * FROM emp WHERE deptno IN (10,20);
This syntax will give the information of all those employees who are either in department number 10 or 20.
The equivalent WHERE clause is to this:
WHERE deptno =10 or deptno=20;

47. NOT IN Opposite of the ‘IN’ Predicate.
Select all rows where values do not match all of the values in the list.
SELECT * FROM emp WHERE
date_join NOT IN(‘10-JAN-02’, ‘01-JAN-01’, ‘10-MAR-02’);
This will project all rows excluding all the values in the list.

48. The concatenation Operator (||)
It allows columns to be linked to others columns, arithmetic expressions or constant values to create a character expression. Columns on either side of the operator are combined to make one single column.
SELECT ename||‘ IS ’||designation||‘ . ’FROM emp;

49. The concatenation Operator (||)
ENAME||'IS'||DESIG
Axay IS CEO
Ashish IS Manager
Sparsh IS Manager
Meenal IS Sales Person
Tanu IS Sales Person
Rahul IS Manager
Vivek IS Admin Officer
7 rows selected.