1. The Political Frame

2. Moliere’s The Misanthrope
It is hard to dislike politics without also disliking people. Like it or not, political dynamics are inevitable under conditions most managers face every day:
Ambiguity
Diversity
Scarcity

3. Five Propositions:
Organizations are coalitions of various individuals and interest groups.
Enduring differences among coalition members in values, beliefs, information, interests, and perceptions of reality.
Scarce resources & enduring differences give conflict a central role & make power the most important resource.
Goals & decisions emerge from bargaining, negotiation, & jockeying for position.

4. Concept of Power Power - the ability to influence another person
Influence - the process of affecting the thoughts, behavior, & feelings of another person
Authority - the right to influence another person 2

5. Sources of Organizational Power: Interpersonal
Reward Power - agent’s ability to control the rewards that the target wants
Coercive Power - agent’s ability to cause an unpleasant experience for a target
Legitimate Power - agent and target agree that agent has influential rights, based on position and mutual agreement
Referent Power-based on interpersonal attraction
Expert Power - agent has knowledge target needs 4

6. Using Power Ethically
Does the behavior produce a good outcome for people both inside and outside the organization?
Does the behavior respect the rights of all parties?
Does the behavior treat all parties equitably and fairly? 6

7. Successful Power Users
Have high need for social power; low need for affiliation
Have these power-oriented characteristics
belief in the authority system
belief in justice
preference for
work & discipline
altruism 8

8. Sources of Organizational Power: Intergroup
Control of critical resources
Control of strategic contingencies - activities that other groups need to complete their tasks
Ways groups hold power over other groups
Ability to reduce uncertainty
High centrality - functionality central to organization’s success
Nonsubstitutability - group’s activities are difficult to replace 9

9. Influence Tactics Consultation Upward Influence the boss
Rational persuasion
Inspirational appeals
Ingratiation
Upward appeals
Coalition tactics
Exchange tactics
Pressure
Upward Influence the boss
Lateral Influence a coworker
Downward Influence
an employee 16

10. Managing Political Behavior
Maintain open communication
Clarify performance expectations
Use participative management
Encourage cooperation among work groups
Manage scarce resources well
Provide a supportive organizational climate 17

11. Managing Up: The Boss
Make sure you understand your boss and his/her context including
Goals and objectives
Pressures
Strengths, weaknesses, blind spots
Preferred work style 18

12. Managing Up: The Boss Assess yourself and your needs, including
Strengths, weaknesses, & blind spots
Personal style
Relation to authority figures 19

13. Using Power Effectively
Use power in ethical ways
Understand and use all of the various types of power and influence
Seek out jobs that allow you to develop your power skills
Use power tempered by maturity and self-control
Accept that influencing people is an important part of the management job 25

14. Nature of Organizational Conflict
Conflict - any situation in which incompatible goals, attitudes, emotions, or behaviors lead to disagreement or opposition between two or more parties
Functional conflict - a healthy, constructive disagreement between two or more people
Dysfunctional conflict - an unhealthy, destructive disagreement between two or more people 2

15. Conflict Substantive and Emotional Conflict
substantive conflict: conflict that occurs in the form of a fundamental disagreement over ends or goals to be pursued and the means for their accomplishment
Emotional Conflict: conflict that involves interpersonal difficulties that arise over feeling of anger, mistrust, dislike, fear, resentment, and the like

16. Conflict Intensity Overt efforts to destroy other party.
Aggressive physical attacks.
Threats and ultimatums.
Overt questioning or challenging of others.
Minor disagreements or misunderstandings.

17. Types of Interdependence
Pooled A B
Sequential A B
Reciprocal A B

18. Relationship between Substantive Conflict and Effectiveness
High
moderate levels of conflict
are constructive
Performance
Challenge is to create and maintain constructive conflict
Want substantive/constructive conflict
Minimize emotional/destructive conflict
too little or too much
conflict is destructive
Low
Low
High
Intensity of Conflict

19. Conflict Management Approaches
Indirect Conflict Management Approaches
appeal to common goals
hierarchical referral
organizational redesign
scripts and myths
Direct Conflict Management Approaches
win-lose conflict
win-win conflict
lose-lose conflict (avoidance, accommodation/smoothing, compromise)

20. Consequences of Conflict4

21. Causes of Conflict in Organizations
Structural Factors
Specialization
Interdependence
Common resources
Goal differences
Authority relationships
Status inconsistencies
Jurisdictional ambiguities
Personal Factors
Skills & abilities
Personalities
Perceptions
Values & ethics
Emotions
Communication barriers
Cultural differences 5

22. Forms of Conflict in Organizations
Interorganizational conflict - conflict that occurs between two or more organizations
Intergroup conflict - conflict that occurs between groups or teams in an organization
Interpersonal conflict - conflict that occurs between two or more individuals 7

23. Forms of Conflict in Organizations
Intrapersonal conflict - conflict that occurs within an individual
Interrole conflict - a person’s experience of conflict among the multiple roles in his/her life 8

24. Forms of Conflict in Organizations
Intrarole conflict - conflict that occurs within a single role, such as when a person receives conflicting messages from role senders about how to perform a certain role
Person-role conflict - conflict that occurs when an individual is expected to perform behaviors in a certain role that conflict with his/her personal values 8

25. Aggressive Mechanisms.
Defense Mechanisms
Aggressive Mechanisms.
Fixation - an aggressive mechanism in which an individual keeps up a dysfunctional behavior that obviously will not solve the conflict.
Displacement - An aggressive mechanism in which an individual directs his/her anger toward someone who is not the source of the conflict.
Negativism - an aggressive mechanism in which a person responds with pessimism to any attempt at solving a problem. 11

26. Compromise Mechanisms
Defense Mechanisms
Compromise Mechanisms
Compensation - a compromise mechanism in which an individual attempts to make up for a negative situation by devoting himself/herself to another pursuit with increased vigor
Identification - a compromise mechanism whereby an individual patterns his or her behavior after another’s
Rationalization - a compromise mechanism characterized by trying to justify one’s behavior by constructing bogus reasons for it 12

27. Withdrawal Mechanisms
Defense Mechanisms
Withdrawal Mechanisms
Flight/withdrawal - a withdrawal mechanism that entails physically escaping a conflict (flight) or psychologically escaping (withdrawal)
Conversion - a withdrawal mechanism in which emotional conflicts are expressed in physical symptoms
Fantasy - a withdrawal mechanism that provides an escape from a conflict through daydreaming 13

28. Managing Intrapersonal Conflict
Person-role conflicts
Intrarole or interrole conflicts
Find out as much
as you can about the company’s values
Ask role senders what they expect
of you 17

29. Win-Lose versus Win-Win Strategies18

30. Ineffective Techniques for Dealing with Conflict
Nonaction - doing nothing in hopes that a conflict will disappear
Secrecy - attempting to hide a conflict or an issue that has the potential to create conflict
Administrative orbiting - delaying action on a conflict by buying time
Due process nonaction - a procedure set up to address conflicts that is so costly, time-consuming, or personally risky that no one will use it
Character assassination - an attempt to label or discredit an opponent 19

31. Effective Techniques for Dealing with Conflict
Subordinate Goals
Confronting
&
Negotiating
Expanding
Resources X
Conflict
Changing
Structure
Changing
Personnel 20

32. Dimensions of Conflict-Handling Intentions
Assertiveness
Cooperativeness
Unassertive
Assertive
Uncooperative
Cooperative
Competing
Collaborating
Compromising
Avoiding
Accommodating

33. Conflict Management Styles
Avoiding - deliberate decision to take no action on a conflict or to stay out of a conflict
Accommodating - concern that the other party’s goals be met but relatively unconcerned with getting own way
Competing - satisfying own interests; willing to do so at other party’s expense
Compromising - each party gives up something to reach a solution
Collaborating - arriving at a solution agreeable to all through open & thorough discussion 21

34. Avoidance Is Appropriate When...
You have no chance of satisfying your concerns
let people cool down

35. Accommodation Is Appropriate When ...
You realize you are wrong
Issue is much more important to other party
To build up credit for later negotiations
To preserve harmony

36. Competition Is Appropriate When...
No long term relationship
To protect yourself against untrustworthy parties
Unpopular courses of action need implementation
Issues are vital to your welfare

37. Collaboration Is Appropriate When ...
Both parties’ concerns are too important to be compromised
To gain commitment
Time is not an issue

38. Compromising Is Appropriate When ...
Goals are less important to you than collaboration
Mutually exclusive goals
To achieve temporary settlements
Under intense time pressure

39. Summary and Implications for Managers
Conflict can be either constructive or destructive to the functioning of a group.
An optimal level of conflict:
prevents stagnation.
stimulates creativity.
releases tension.
and initiates the seeds for change.
Material pertinent to this illustration is found on pages

40. Summary and Implications for Managers
Inadequate or excessive levels of conflict can hinder group effectiveness.
Don’t assume there's one conflict-handling intention that is always best.
Use competition when quick, decisive action is vital.
Use collaboration to find an integrative solution.
Use avoidance when an issue is trivial.
Use accommodation when you find you’re wrong.
Use compromise when goals are important.
Material pertinent to this illustration is found on pages

41. Skills of the Manager as Politician
Agenda Setting
Mapping the Political Terrain
Networking & Building Coalitions

42. Negotiation
Negotiation - a joint process of finding a mutually acceptable solution to a complex conflict
Useful under these conditions
Two or more parties
Conflict of interest between the parties
Parties are willing to negotiate
Parties prefer to work together rather than to fight openly, give in, break off contact, or take the dispute to a higher authority 23

43. Negotiation
An exchange relationship between two parties where it is determined what will be exchanged and the rate of exchange.
NET OUTCOMES: Benefits minus costs (hassles, stress and what you have to give up).
ASPIRATIONS: What each party reasonable expects to get out of the negotiation.
BEST ALTERNATIVE TO A NEGOTIATED AGREEMENT (BATNA): If you walked away from the negotiation, the worst that could happen to you.

44. The Negotiation Process
__ Seller’s BATNA
__ Seller’s Net Outcomes
__ Seller’s Comparison Level (Aspiration)
__ Buyer’s Net Outcomes
__ Buyer’s Comparison Level (Aspiration)
__ Buyer’s BATNA

45. Seller Aspiration: To make a sale of $1.50 per unit
Comparison Level: She can sell to another client for $1.00 per unit

46. Buyer Aspiration: To pay $.80 per unit
BATNA: She can buy them from another seller at $1.60 per unit.

47. The Negotiation Process
__ Buyer’s BATNA ($1.60)
__ Seller’s Net Outcomes
__ Seller’s Comparison Level/Aspiration ($1.50)
__ Buyer’s Net Outcomes
__ Buyer’s Comparison Level/Aspiration ($.80)
__ Seller’s BATNA ($1.00)

48. Will we Negotiate?
The bargaining range will fall between the salesperson’s and the purchaser’s limits. In this case there is overlap. If there is no overlap, then the negotiation will not be successfully concluded.
How do you know when you start if there is any overlap?

49. Agreement Where our net outcomes meet.
BATNA: Affects comparison level, limits.

50. Distributive Bargaining
Fixed Pie Mentality
We normally frame as Distributive, leads to bargaining over issues.
We like to cut to the chase
We like to ignore the interpersonal

51. Maximizing Joint Outcomes
Instead of bargaining over each individual issue, try to bargain in ‘packages’
Each issue does not carry the same level of importance to all
Give concessions of things that are not important to you, but are important to the other

52. Joint Outcomes
We almost never get maximized joint outcomes by bargaining sequentially (now this issue, now that issue)
It’s hard to calculate the importance of issues for ourselves, and others
When we view the ‘other’ as the ‘opponent’ all of a sudden every issue seems important
So, we are not honest about our issues

53. Linking Issues
Find ways to link issues (what’s important to me with what’s not important to me but IS important to the opponent)

54. Is the Process Complex?
People tend to see negotiation as complex, and see it as undefined CHAOS
We try to package simply
Or tend to separate each issue

55. The Best Way to Negotiate
Cognitively figure out packages (Planning)
Come up with 4-5 items that I give that the other wants
And where the other gives that I want
Get some momentum by getting some up front agreements
Try not to maximize EACH ISSUE but maximize the ENTIRE PACKAGE

56. Planning Yes, negotiation requires planning and patience
Know issues to keep in mind
Know the levels of each issue
Know the value of each issue
Get the other guy to agree on issues (find a way of thinking about same issues)

57. Reactance
The other guy knows you are trying to move him/her and may balk
How about reciprocity?

58. Do’s and Don’ts
Do develop more than 1 alternative, actually enough so you are ambivalent to current alternative
Do negotiate over as little as possible
Don’t negotiate with friends

59. 2 Negotiating Approaches
Distributive Bargaining -
the goals of the parties
are in conflict,
& each party seeks
to maximize its resources
Integrative Negotiation -
focuses on the merits
of the issues & seeks
a win-win solution 24

60. What Makes Integrative Negotiation Different?
A focus on Commonalities (Frames)
An attempt to address needs and interests (Covey)
Commitment to meeting the needs of all parties
Exchange of information and ideas
Invention of options for mutual gain
Objective criteria for standards of performance
An example of expanding the pie – the $50 gift certificate. Then, add the overhead from the book to ‘expand the pie’ and reveal win-win options.

61. Issues in Negotiation Personality Traits Gender Differences
Cultural Differences
Third-Party Negotiations
Mediators
Arbitrators
Conciliators
Consultants
Material pertinent to this illustration is found on pages

62. What is Ethical? (Lax & Sebenius, 1986)
Are you following rules that are understood and accepted?
Are you comfortable discussing and defending your action?
Would you want someone to do it to you?
What if everyone acted that way?
Are there alternatives that rest on firmer ethical ground?

63. Organizations as Arenas
Arenas house contests
As such, the help determine
What game will be played
Who will be on the field
What interests will be pursued

64. What is often ignored Lowerarchy
Groups in lower positions devise a host of creative and maddening ways to resist, divert, undermine, ignore, or overthrow change efforts.

65. Organizations As Political Agents
Organizations are tools for achieving the purposes of those who control them.
They exist, compete, and coevolve in business or political ecosystems.
Relationships are fiercely competitive, sometimes collaborative and interdependent.