1. Classical Conditioning Module 18
Scene from “Clockwork Orange”
A Clockwork Orange: Stanley Kubrick Cinemagraphs
Dublin-based film critic Paul Lynch on A Clockwork Orange: With colour, Kubrick found an alacrity and an arrest in his images that began to transcend the subject material of his stories…Those widescreen shots seem to push the natural boundaries of the screen, to absorb every photon of light. Kubrick wanted to do to his audiences what he did to Alex in A Clockwork Orange: to peel back our eyelids until we are forced to see every beam from the projector. He did not want us to blink. There is a cold pedantry to his work, an unfeeling, ivory-tower vantage that, when married to the analytical care he took with his craft, can leave you feeling a little cold towards his films.
Classical Conditioning Module 18
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3. What is Learning???
Learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge that occurs as a result of experience.
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4. The 4 Factors That Form The Definition of Learning:
learning is inferred from a change in behavior/performance*
learning results in an inferred change in memory
learning is the result of experience
learning is relatively permanent
*This means that behavior changes that are temporary or due to things like drugs, alcohol, etc., are not "learned".
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5. One type of learning is: Classical Conditioning
aka
Associative Learning
Conditioning = Learning
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6. Classical Conditioning
It was the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov who “discovered” classical conditioning.
His work provided a basis for later behaviorists like John Watson.
Preview Question 2: How does classical conditioning demonstrate learning by association?
Behaviorism – studies behavior without reference to mental processes,…. no place for cognition
In Ivan Pavlov's experiments in classical conditioning, the dog's salivation was (AP94)
(A) An unconditioned stimulus only
(B) An unconditioned response only
(C) A conditioned response only
(D) Both an unconditioned and a conditioned stimulus
(E) Both an unconditioned and a conditioned response
Pavlov had a little dog
His saliva was clear as spit
And when he rang his little bell
Pavlov was sure of it
Sovfoto
Ivan Pavlov ( )
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7. Classical Conditioning is learning that takes place when an originally neutral stimulus comes to produce a conditioned response because of its association with an unconditioned stimulus.
Which of the following responses was most likely acquired through classical conditioning? (AP94)
(A) The startle response of a baby the first time the baby hears thunder
(B) A child's fear of dogs after the child has been bitten by a dog
(C) The cry of pain expressed by a man whose hand has been cut on a piece of broken glass
(D) The uncontrollable blinking of a woman who has just gotten dust in her eye
(E) The salivation of a dog that is halfway through a bowl of its favorite food
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8. Apparatus for Measuring Conditioned Responses
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9. However, the tone (neutral stimulus) does not.
Pavlov’s Experiments
Before conditioning, food (Unconditioned Stimulus, US) produces salivation (Unconditioned Response, UR).
However, the tone (neutral stimulus) does not.
Preview Question 3: How does a neutral stimulus become a CS, and what are the processes of acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination in classical conditioning?
In operant conditioning, the concept of contingency is exemplified by an "if A, then B" relationship in which A and B, respectively, represent (AP99)
(A) stimulus, response
(B) Response, reinforcement
(C) Stimulus, reinforcement
(D) Response, stimulus
(E) Stimulus, stimulus
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10. Pavlov’s Experiments
During conditioning, the neutral stimulus (tone) and the US (food) are paired, resulting in salivation (UR). After conditioning, the neutral stimulus (now Conditioned Stimulus, CS) elicits salivation (now Conditioned Response, CR)
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that automatically and naturally triggers a response.
Unconditioned Response (UCR): A unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus, like salivation in the dog when food is in the mouth.
Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Originally a neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response.
Conditioned Response (CR): A learned response to a previously neutral conditioned stimulus.
19 3. After several trials during which a dog is given a certain kind of food at the same time that a specific tone is sounded, there is evidence of conditioning if the dog salivates when (AP94)
(A) The tone only is presented
(B) The food only is presented
(C) The food and tone are presented together
(D) A different tone is presented with the food
(E) A different kind of food is presented without a tone
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14. Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
Any stimulus that creates an autonomic/automatic/reflexive response in an organism
Bright light (pupil contraction)
Food (salivation)
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15. Unconditioned Response (UR)
A UR can be any unlearned response that can be elicited from an organism.
Examples
Heart rate increasing
Sweat
Vomit/nausea
Tears
Salivating
Blinking
Reflexes
These are not things that you choose to do
These are NOT things that an organism CHOOSES to do, like pressing a lever.
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16. Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
An originally irrelevant stimulus that comes to trigger a conditioned response after association with unconditioned stimuli.
Bell
Light
Odor
Anything that can be perceived (heard, smelled, felt, seen, tasted)
Virtually anything can be paired up with a UCS to become a CS.
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17. Conditioned Response (CR)
The learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus.
The UCR/UR is ALWAYS the same as the CR
Anything that can be a UCR/UR can become a CR.
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18. Diagram of Classical Conditioning
Unlearned S-R
UCS UCR
+ (association formed/pairing made)
CS CR
Learned S-R
96. Four-year-old Scott fell down the stairs at his grandmother’s house. Although he was not badly hurt, he was very frightened. Now, whenever his parents mention visiting his grandmother’s house, he feels anxious and fearful. In classical conditioning terms, what are the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) in the scenario, respectively? (AP13)
(A) Grandmother’s house; fear
(B) Grandmother’s house; falling
(C) Fear; grandmother’s house
(D) Falling; anxiety
(E) Anxiety; fear
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19. Following are a number of examples you need to understand how CR, CS, UCR and UCS interact but you do not have to write every example!
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20. Pavlov’s Dog Example of CC
Unlearned S-R
UCS UCR
Food presented dog salivating
+ (association formed/pairing made)
Bowl or steps dog salivating
CS CR
Learned S-R
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21. Example of Classical Conditioning
Unlearned S-R
UCS UCR
Flu Bug vomiting
+ (association formed/pairing made)
Restaurant of Choice vomiting
CS CR
Learned S-R
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22. Example of Classical Conditioning
Unlearned S-R
UCS UCR
Sadness over breakup crying
+ (association formed/pairing made)
Song that meant a lot to relationship crying
CS CR
Learned S-R
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23. Example of Classical Conditioning
Unlearned S-R
UCS UCR
No food/low blood sugar hunger pains
+ (association formed/pairing made)
Clock/particular time hunger pains
CS CR
Learned S-R
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26. Acquisition
Acquisition is the initial learning stage in classical conditioning in which an association between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus takes place.
Factors affecting the learning of a conditioned response
Timing
Forward conditioning = CS then UCS
Most effective (bell then food0
Backward conditioning = UCS then CS
Less effective (food then bell)
Simultaneous conditioning = Same time
Least effective (food and bell at the same time)
Predictability
Signal Strength
Attention to Stimulus
Second-Order Conditioning
i.e. Dr.’s waiting room (cs) and shot (ucs)– waiting room could begin to act as ucs… eventually magazines become cs.
While adaptive, can cause problems.
Predicting Alzheimer’s Disease – ability of patients to be conditioned to blink (air puff = ucs, light =cs) deteriorates.
62. Robert Rescorla’s contingency model of classical conditioning states that (AP12)
A. conditioning occurs only when one even reliably predicts the other
B. contiguity of stimuli is sufficient for conditioning to occur
C. reinforcement contingencies predict extinction
D. any stimulus can become conditioned when paired with an unconditioned stimulus
E. the only difference between the conditioned response and the unconditioned response is the stimulus used to elicit them
In most cases, for conditioning to occur, the neutral stimulus needs to come before the unconditioned stimulus.
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27. Acquisition
The CS needs to come half a second before the US for acquisition to occur.
Because studies of learning show that events occurring close together in time are easier to associate than those occurring at widely different times, parents should probably avoid which of the following? (AP94)
(A) Corporal punishment
(B) Mild punishment
(C) Consistent punishment
(D) Inescapable punishment
(E) Delay of punishment
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28. Extinction
When the US (food) does not follow the CS (tone), CR (salivation) begins to decrease and eventually causes extinction.
Responses extinguish fastest when they are learned through which type of reinforcement schedule? (AP94)
(A) Continuous
(B) Negative
(C) Variable-interval
(D) Variable-ratio
(E) Fixed-interval
An individual's fear of dogs that is lost as the individual is exposed to dogs in nonthreatening situations is referred to by behaviorists as a fear that has been (AP99)
(A) Satiated
(B) Suppressed
(C) Repressed
(D) Extinguished
(E) Punished
53. For extinction to occur, which of the following must be true of the conditioned response (CR), the conditioned stimulus (CS), and the unconditioned stimulus (UCS)? (AP12)
A. The CR occurs after the CS but does not occur after the other stimuli
B. The CR occurs after a stimulus that is similar to the CS
C. The CS and the UCS are repeatedly paired, and the CR gains strength.
D. The CS is repeatedly presented in the absence of the UCS and the CR loses strength
E. When the CR loses strength, a rest period is given, after which the CS again elicits the CR
A disappeared CR is called extinguished, not extinct.
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29. Spontaneous Recovery
After a rest period, an extinguished CR (salivation) spontaneously recovers, but if the CS (tone) persists alone, the CR becomes extinct again.
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30. Stimulus Generalization
Tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the CS is called generalization.
Pavlov conditioned the dog’s salivation (CR) by using miniature vibrators (CS) on the thigh. When he subsequently stimulated other parts of the dog’s body, salivation dropped
Can be adaptive, toddlers taught to fear cars…..and trucks and motorcycles etc.
Or fear snake, fear all snakes
19 7. A two year old child is frightened by a small dog. A few weeks later the same child sees a cat and becomes frightened. The child’s reaction is most likely an example of which of the following? (AP04)
(A) Stimulus discrimination
(B) Second-order conditioning
(C) Stimulus generalization
(D) Sensory preconditioning
(E) Spontaneous recovery
55. A child who learns that spoons are tableware and the correctly calls forks and knives tableware is demonstrating (AP12)
A. rote learning
B. imitation training
C. discrimination training
D. stimulus generalization
E. classical conditioning
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31. Another example of Stimulus Generalization
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32. Stimulus Discrimination
Discrimination is the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.
Can be used to discover what various organisms perceive
Which is a definition of discrimination that most directly applies to classical conditioning? (AP04)
(A) Prototype matching to organize information into categories
(B) Maintaining information in memory through repetition
(C) Differential treatment, usually negative, based on group membership
(D) Recognizing an object as distinct from its surroundings
(E) Learning to respond differently to similar stimuli
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33. The more predictable the association the stronger the CR
Cognitive Processes
Early behaviorists believed that learned behaviors of various animals could be reduced to mindless mechanisms.
Pavlov and Watson considered consciousness, or mind, unfit for the scientific study of psychology.
However, they underestimated the importance of cognitive processes and biological constraints.
Prediction is cognition
In alcoholics, nausea inducing drug mixed with alcohol effectiveness is dulled by the understanding that the drug is causing the nausea so the association is weakened.
88. Which of the following best reflects contemporary interpretations of classical conditioning? (AP13)
(A) They remain relatively unchanged from earlier interpretations by people like E. L. Thorndike.
(B) They are primarily based on the theory of contiguity.
(C) They take into account cognitive processes like expectancy.
(D) They are in agreement with the interpretations of behaviorists like B. F. Skinner.
(E) They make a clear distinction between long-term and short-term memory.
However, later behaviorists suggested that animals learn the predictability of a stimulus, meaning they learn expectancy or awareness of a stimulus (Rescorla & Wagner, 1972).
The more predictable the association the stronger the CR
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34. Biological Predispositions
Animals are predisposed to learn things that enhance survival.
Pavlov and Watson believed that laws of learning were similar for all animals. Therefore, a pigeon and a person do not differ in their learning.
However, behaviorists later suggested that learning is constrained by an animal’s biology.
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35. Biological Predispositions
John Garcia
Conditioned taste aversions
Not all neutral stimuli can become conditioned stimuli.
Internal stimuli—associate better with taste
External stimuli—associate better with pain
Biological preparedness
Rats developed aversions to tastes but not sights or sounds
Nausea could follow stimuli by several hours
Get sick after a restaurant visit, you become averse to the taste of the food, not the plates, the shapes of the silverware, the friends you were with, the music you heard.
John Garcia showed that when rats ingested a novel substance before becoming nauseated from radiation of drugs, the acquired a (AP04)
(A) Conditioned taste preference for the substance
(B) Generalized taste preference for similar substances
(C) Conditioned taste aversion for the substance
(D) Conditioned taste aversion for any novel substance
(E) Conditioned taste preference for any novel substance
Research indicates that many animals are more likely to associate sickness with a taste they experienced in conjunction with the illness than with a tone or light. This finding supports which of the following claims (AP04)
(A) The tone or light must not have been appropriately paired with the onset of illness
(B) Illness is not necessarily punishing to subjects
(C) Animals may be biologically prepared to learn some things over other things
(D) Extrinsic reinforcers may be more effective than intrinsic reinforcers
(E) Positive reinforcers are more effective than punishers
Rats in an experiment learned to associate sweetened water with a drug that causes immune suppression. Later, the sweetened water alone produced the immune suppression. This outcome is an example of which of the following? (AP04)
(A) Learned helplessness
(B) Systematic desensitization
(C) Operant conditioning
(D) Classical conditioning
(E) Biofeedback
Studies of learning have shown that animals develop an aversion for tastes associated with (AP99)
(A) electric shock
(B) Extinguished associations
(C) Sickness
(D) Novel stimuli
(E) Starvation
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36. The Bonobo and the Athiest by Franz Der Waal
A good example is taste aversion. We remember food that has poisoned us so well that we gag at the thought of it. This reaction is of great survival value, yet it violated behaviorist dogma. Founded by B, R Skinner, behaviorism claims that all behavior is shaped by reward and punishment, which works better the shorter the time interval between the act and its consequences. So, when the American psychologist John Garcia reported that rats avoid poisoned foods after just a single bad experience, even if the nausea sets in only hours later, no one believed him. Leading scientists made sure his study didn't appear in any mainstream journal. The author kept getting rejections, the most infamous one contending that his findings were no more likely than finding bird shit in a cuckoo clock. The "Garcia effect" is now well established, but the early reaction illustrates how much scientists hate the unexpected.
The Bonobo and the Athiest by Franz Der Waal
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37. Biological Predispositions
Even humans can develop classically to conditioned nausea.
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38. Pavlov’s Legacy Because of Pavlov learning is studied objectively
Classical conditioning is a way that all organisms learn to adapt
Preview Question 5: Why is Pavlov’s work important?
Every species ever tested can be conditioned (Schwartz 1984)
Ivan Pavlov
( )
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39. Example Applications of Classical Conditioning
Former crack cocaine users should avoid cues (people, places) associated with previous drug use.
Through classical conditioning, a drug (plus its taste) that affects the immune response may cause the taste of the drug to invoke the immune response. (Ader 1985)
What if headache relief could be conditioned or any other drug response for that matter?
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40. Following are a number of examples, you need to understand how conditioning can be applied but you do not have to write every example! (pay close attention to little Albert though)
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41. Behaviorism John B. Watson viewed psychology as objective science
generally agreed-upon consensus today
recommended study of behavior without reference to unobservable mental processes
not universally accepted by all schools of thought today
Unobservable mental processes – Cognition – thinking
1 or Which of the following statements is true of behaviorism? (AP94)
(A) It was formulated to account for cognitive development.
(B) It is rooted in Sigmund Freud's view of the importance of early experiences.
(C) It focuses on the development of thought processes and knowledge.
(D) It holds that development is largely a product of learning.
(E) It emphasizes the dominance of heredity over environment.
60. John B. Watson is best known as the founder of (AP12)
A. behaviorism
B. functionalism
C. rationalism
D. structuralism
E. mechanism
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42. Conditional Training: Albert and Peter
Conditioned fear experiments such as Albert’s experience would never occur today because due to ethical standards.
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43. Little Albert found on the psych files 19:48
DiscPsy Fig5.2a p170
Watson took a a baby named Albert and conditioned him to be afraid of white furry objects using Pavlov’s techniques.
Little Albert found on the psych files 19:48
Watson & Raynor with Little Albert
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44. John Watson and Rosalie Rayner: Hypothesis, Methodology, Results
Conditioned fear into an infant
Presented a rat immediately followed by a loud noise, startling the baby + =
After a few tries, Albert was afraid of the rat
Albert generalized his fears to other furry objects
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45. Remember that Little Albert generalized his fear of rats into fear of anything with white fur, including a Santa Claus mask, a rabbit, etc.
Similar stimuli
19 7. A two year old child is frightened by a small dog. A few weeks later the same child sees a cat and becomes frightened. The child’s reaction is most likely an example of which of the following? (AP04)
(A) Stimulus discrimination
(B) Second-order conditioning
(C) Stimulus generalization
(D) Sensory preconditioning
(E) Spontaneous recovery
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46. DiscPsy Fig5.2b p170
Following up on Pavlov’s work, in 1920 John Watson and Rosalie Rayner hypothesized that humans could be conditioned to have certain fears. In particular, they hypothesized that a human child could be conditioned to fear a rat. The child they studied was an 11-month-old boy named Albert B., or “Little Albert.”
Before the experiment, Little Albert was not afraid of rats, but he was afraid of loud noises. Watson and Rayner began the experiment by showing Little Albert a white rat. As Albert reached for the rat, the experimenters pounded a hammer directly behind his head, startling Albert. After doing this several times, Albert became frightened and began to cry simply upon seeing the rat without any accompanying noise. Watson and Rayner had therefore successfully conditioned him to fear the rat.
A few days after conditioning Little Albert to fear the rat, Watson and Rayner found that Albert had generalized his fears to other furry creatures, including a rabbit, a dog, a sealskin coat, or Santa Claus mask. He did not express fear when exposed to non-furry toys.
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47. Little Albert Example of CC
Unlearned S-R
UCS UCR
Loud Noise fear/crying
+ (association formed/pairing made)
Rat or Rabbit fear/crying
CS CR
Learned S-R
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48. Little Albert – John Watson
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49. Mary Cover Jones Mary Cover Jones used an
early form of desensitization
to prove that fears (phobias)
could be unlearned.
Systematic desensitization
Peter, a young boy, had an extreme fear of rabbits. Jones gave Peter his favorite food while slowly bringing the rabbit closer and closer. Eventually Peter no longer panicked around rabbits.
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50. Mary Cover Jones DAY 1 DAY 2 DAY 3 Colleague of Watson
Deconditioned 3-year-old Peter from his fears by gradually moving a rabbit (and other things) closer to him while he was eating
In 1925, Mary Cover Jones (a colleague of Watson) hypothesized that she would be able to decondition a three-year-old boy named Peter from some of his fears, which included feathers, cotton, frogs, fish, rats, rabbits, and mechanical toys. She began by bringing a caged rabbit into the same room where Peter was having a snack in his highchair. The rabbit was far enough away that it did not bother Peter. The next day, she brought the rabbit increasingly closer to Peter until he began to become disturbed. On subsequent days, the rabbit was moved closer and closer to Peter’s highchair only to the point at which Peter became afraid, at which time they’d end the experiment for the day. Eventually, Peter was able to pet the rabbit, having been deconditioned from his fear. Jones was able to decondition most of Peter’s other fears in this manner.
Watson and Rayner’s experiment with Little Albert showed that people can be conditioned to fear specific types of objects. Conversely, Jones suggested that people could be deconditioned from their fears. Similar methods are used today to help people overcome phobias.
DAY 1
DAY 2
DAY 3
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51. Advertising
Many beer ads prominently feature attractive young women wearing bikinis. The young women (Unconditioned Stimulus) naturally elicit a favorable, mildly aroused feeling (Unconditioned Response) in most men. The beer is simply associated with this effect.
The same thing applies with the jingles and music that accompany many advertisements.
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52. Crime reaction
When a prof. was in college he was robbed at gun point by a young man who gave him the Choice ("Your money or your life.") It was an unexpected and frightening experience. This event occurred just about dusk and for a long time thereafter, he often experienced moments of dread in the late afternoons particularly when he was just walking around the city. Even though he was quite safe, the lengthening shadows of the day were so strongly associated with the fear he experienced in the robbery, that he could not but help feel the emotion all over.
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53. An Auntie
 I liked my aunt, she always made me feel warm and wanted. She always wore a particular perfume. When I smell the perfume now, I immediately feel warm and wanted.
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54. A cat example
In order to be able to punish my cat even when I'm not near enough to reach him, I have paired the sound of a clicker with getting squirted with water. Now the sound of the clicker causes him to startle.
The click is developing the same aversive properties as the water through Classical Conditioning. The Unconditioned stimulus is the water; the Unconditioned response is the "jump" as in startle. The click starts our as a neutral stimulus, but becomes the Conditioned stimulus capable of producing the Conditioned "jump" response.
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55. The smell of fresh bread baking makes my mouth water.
True for a variety of foods
In the past the smell of the fresh bread immediately preceded putting a piece in my mouth, which causes salivation. Through the mechanism of Classical conditioning the smell itself comes to elicit salivation.
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56. After the bad car accident we had last year, I cringe and break into a sweat at the sound of squealing brakes.
This is Classical conditioning. The cringing, which is an unconditioned response to pain or fear, was produced by the accident and its accompanying pain. That accident was probably preceded by the sound of squealing brakes, which became a conditioned stimulus for the conditioned response of cringing.
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57. Alcoholics
Another way to treat alcoholics is to have them take a drug called anabuse. If they ingest any alcohol at all, the will have serious vomiting issues. The desire is to pair the vomiting with the alcoholic drink.
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58. Anna learns to blink when she sees her father hold the camera to his eye.US UR CS CR
US flash
UR blink
CS camera
CR blink
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59. Mark has to get a shot once a week at the doctor's office
Mark has to get a shot once a week at the doctor's office. The shots are somewhat painful, and are administered by a nurse. Mark cringes every time the nurse inserts the needle into his arm. After a couple of weeks, Mark finds that he is tense the minute the nurse walks in the room to give him the shot US UR CS CR
US shot
UR cringe/tension
CS nurse
CR cringe/tension
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60. Rita was in a car accident on the interstate
Rita was in a car accident on the interstate. She did not get seriously injured but the accident terrified her. Now she avoids the interstate, because driving on it makes her too tense and nervous. US UR CS CR
US accident
UR tense/nervous
CS interstate driving
CR tense/nervous
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61. "fear of bridges"
-Fear of bridges might develop from a variety of sources. For example, while a child rides in a car over a dilapidated bridge, his father makes jokes about the bridge collapsing and all of them falling into the river below. The father finds this funny and so decides to do it whenever they cross the bridge. Years later, the child has grown up and now is afraid to drive over any bridge. In this case, the fear of one bridge generalized to all bridges which now evoke fear.
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62. Advertising - modern advertising strategies evolved from John Watson's use of conditioning. The approach is to link an attractive US with a CS (the product being sold) so the consumer will feel positively toward the product just like they do with the US.
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63. EXPLORING PSYCHOLOGY (7th Edition in Modules) David Myers
PowerPoint Slides
Aneeq Ahmad, Amy Jones and Schallhorn with Garber edits
Henderson State University
Worth Publishers, © 2008
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