1. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings PowerPoint ® Lecture Presentations for Biology Eighth Edition Neil Campbell and Jane Reece Lectures by Chris Romero, updated by Erin Barley with contributions from Joan Sharp Chapter 2 The Chemical Context of Life

2. What you need to know… The three subatomic particles and their significance. The types of bonds, how they form, and their relative structures. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

3. Concept 2.1: Matter consists of chemical elements in pure form and in combinations called compounds Organisms are composed of matter Matter is anything that takes up space and has mass Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

4. Elements and Compounds Matter is made up of elements An element is a substance that cannot be broken down to other substances by chemical reactions A compound is a substance consisting of two or more elements in a fixed ratio A compound has characteristics different from those of its elements Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

5. Fig. 2-3 Sodium Chlorine Sodium chloride

6. Essential Elements of Life Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen make up 96% of living matter About 25 of the 92 elements are essential to life Most of the remaining 4% consists of calcium, phosphorus, potassium, and sulfur Trace elements are those required by an organism in minute quantities (ex. Iron and Iodine) Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

7. Table 2-1

8. (a) Nitrogen deficiency Fig. 2-4 (b) Iodine deficiency

9. Concept 2.2: An element’s properties depend on the structure of its atoms Each element consists of unique atoms An atom is the smallest unit of matter that still retains the properties of an element – Made up of protons, neutrons, and electrons Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

10. Subatomic Particles Atoms are composed of subatomic particles Relevant subatomic particles include: – Neutrons (no electrical charge); found in nucleus; number can vary in same elements (isotopes) – Protons (positive charge); found in nucleus; determine element – Electrons (negative charge); found in electron shell around nucleus; determine chemical properties and reactivity of element Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

11. Isotopes All atoms of an element have the same number of protons but may differ in number of neutrons Isotopes are two atoms of an element that differ in number of neutrons – Ex. 12 C and 14 C – both have 6 protons but one has 6 neutrons and one has 8 neutrons Radioactive isotopes decay spontaneously, giving off particles and energy Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

12. Some applications of radioactive isotopes in biological research are: – Dating fossils – Tracing atoms through metabolic processes – Diagnosing medical disorders Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Isotopes Continued

13. Cloud of negative charge (2 electrons) Fig. 2-5 Nucleus Electrons (b) (a)

14. Atomic Number and Atomic Mass Atoms of the various elements differ in number of subatomic particles An element’s atomic number is the number of protons in its nucleus An element’s mass number is the sum of protons plus neutrons in the nucleus Atomic mass, the atom’s total mass, can be approximated by the mass number Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

15. Fig. 2-9 Hydrogen 1 H Lithium 3 Li Beryllium 4 Be Boron 5 B Carbon 6 C Nitrogen 7 N Oxygen 8 O Fluorine 9 F Neon 10 Ne Helium 2 He Atomic number Element symbol Electron- distribution diagram Atomic mass 2 He 4.00 First shell Second shell Third shell Sodium 11 Na Magnesium 12 Mg Aluminum 13 Al Silicon 14 Si Phosphorus 15 P Sulfur 16 S Chlorine 17 Cl Argon 18 Ar

16. Concept 2.3: The formation and function of molecules depend on chemical bonding between atoms Atoms with incomplete valence shells can share or transfer valence electrons with certain other atoms Chemical Bonds - interactions between the valence electrons of different atoms; atoms are held together by chemical bonds 2 Types: Covalent and Ionic Bonds Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

17. Covalent Bonds Covalent bond - is the sharing of a pair of valence electrons by two atoms – Two Types: Nonpolar covalent bonds Polar covalent bonds Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

18. Non-polar Covalent Bonds Occurs when electrons are being shared equally between 2 atoms Example: O=O, H-H Atoms a vary in their electronegativity – a tendancy to attract electrons of a covalent bond; oxygen is strongly electronegative Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

19. Polar Covalent Bonds One atom has greater electronegativity than the other, resulting in an unequal sharing of electrons Ex. See pic – within the molecule of water, the electrons are shared unequally, resulting in the region of oxygen atom being slightly more negative while regions around the H are being slightly more positive Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

20. A molecule consists of two or more atoms held together by covalent bonds A single covalent bond, or single bond, is the sharing of one pair of valence electrons A double covalent bond, or double bond, is the sharing of two pairs of valence electrons Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

21. Fig. 2-12 Name and Molecular Formula Electron- distribution Diagram Lewis Dot Structure and Structural Formula Space- filling Model (a) Hydrogen (H 2 ) (b) Oxygen (O 2 ) (c) Water (H 2 O) (d) Methane (CH 4 )

22. Most of the strongest bonds in organisms are covalent bonds that form a cell’s molecules Weak chemical bonds, such as ionic bonds and hydrogen bonds, are also important Weak chemical bonds reinforce shapes of large molecules and help molecules adhere to each other Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Weak Chemical Bonds

23. Ionic Bonds Atoms sometimes strip electrons from their bonding partners An example is the transfer of an electron from sodium to chlorine After the transfer of an electron, both atoms have charges A charged atom (or molecule) is called an ion Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

24. Fig. 2-14-1 NaCl Na Sodium atom Chlorine atom Cl

25. Fig. 2-14-2 NaCl Na Cl Na Sodium atom Chlorine atom Cl Na + Sodium ion (a cation) Cl – Chloride ion (an anion) Sodium chloride (NaCl)

26. Fig. 2-15 Na + Cl –

27. A cation is a positively charged ion An anion is a negatively charged ion An ionic bond is an attraction between an anion and a cation Animation: Ionic Bonds Animation: Ionic Bonds Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

28. Hydrogen Bonds A hydrogen bond forms when a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to one electronegative atom is also attracted to another electronegative atom In living cells, the electronegative partners are usually oxygen or nitrogen atoms Ex. Nucleotides in DNA Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

29. Fig. 2-16    ++ ++    ++ ++ ++ Water (H 2 O) Ammonia (NH 3 ) Hydrogen bond

30. Van der Waals Interactions If electrons are distributed asymmetrically in molecules or atoms, they can result in “hot spots” of positive or negative charge Van der Waals interactions are attractions between molecules that are close together as a result of these charges – Very weak, transient connections that are the result of asymmetrical distribution of electrons within a molecule – Contribute to 3D shape of large molecules Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

31. Van der Waals Interactions Collectively, such interactions can be strong, as between molecules of a gecko’s toe hairs and a wall surface Van der Waals interactions are what allow Gecko lizards to walk up walls, they take place between the 1000s of toe hairs between the toes and the surface of the wall Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

32. You should now be able to: 1.Identify the four major elements 2.Distinguish between the following pairs of terms: neutron and proton, atomic number and mass number, atomic weight and mass number 3.Distinguish between and discuss the biological importance of the following: nonpolar covalent bonds, polar covalent bonds, ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds, and van der Waals interactions Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings