1. The Chemical Context of Life

2. Matter consists of chemical elements in pure form and in combinations called compounds Organisms are composed of matter Organisms are composed of matter Matter is anything that takes up space and has mass Matter is anything that takes up space and has mass Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

3. Elements and Compounds  An element is a substance that cannot be broken down to other substances by chemical reactions (pure)  Carbon  Oxygen  A compound is a substance consisting of two or more elements in a fixed ratio  Sodium chloride Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

4. Fig. 2-3 Sodium Chlorine Sodium chloride

5. Essential Elements of Life  About 25 of the 92 elements are essential to life  Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen make up 96% of living matter  Most of the remaining 4% consists of calcium, phosphorus, potassium, and sulfur  Trace elements are those required by an organism in minute quantities Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

6. Table 2-1

7. An element’s properties depend on the structure of its atoms  Each element consists of unique atoms  An atom is the smallest unit of matter that still retains the properties of an element Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

8. Subatomic Particles  Atoms are composed of subatomic particles  Relevant subatomic particles include:  Neutrons (no electrical charge)  Protons (positive charge)  Electrons (negative charge) # protons = atomic number # protons = atomic number # protons + # neutrons = mass number # protons + # neutrons = mass number # protons = # electrons # protons = # electrons Electrons form a cloud around the nucleus Electrons form a cloud around the nucleus Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

9. Cloud of negative charge (2 electrons) Fig. 2-5 Nucleus Electrons (b) (a)

10. Isotopes  All atoms of an element have the same number of protons but may differ in number of neutrons  Isotopes are two atoms of an element that differ in number of neutrons  Carbon 12, Carbon 13 and Carbon 14 Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

11. The Energy Levels of Electrons An electron’s state of potential energy is called its energy level, or electron shell An electron’s state of potential energy is called its energy level, or electron shell  Valence electrons are those in the outermost shell, or valence shell  The chemical behavior of an atom is mostly determined by the valence electrons Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

12. Electron Orbitals A shorthand notation is the electron configuration: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6

13. 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p 5s 4d 5p 6s 4f 5d 6p s = 2 p = 6 d = 10 f = 14

14. The formation and function of molecules depend on chemical bonding between atoms Atoms with incomplete valence shells can share or transfer valence electrons with certain other atoms These interactions usually result in atoms staying close together, held by attractions called chemical bonds Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

15. Covalent Bonds  A covalent bond is the sharing of a pair of valence electrons by two atoms  In a covalent bond, the shared electrons count as part of each atom’s valence shell Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings (a) Hydrogen (H 2 ) (b) Oxygen (O 2 ) (c) Water (H 2 O) (d) Methane (CH 4 ) Name and Molecular Formula Electron- distribution Diagram Lewis Dot Structure & Structural Formula Space- filling Model

16.  A molecule consists of two or more atoms held together by covalent bonds  A single covalent bond, or single bond, is the sharing of one pair of valence electrons  A double covalent bond, or double bond, is the sharing of two pairs of valence electrons Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Single covalent bond Double covalent bond

17. Fig. 2-13  – – ++ ++ H H O H2OH2O  In a nonpolar covalent bond, the atoms share the electron equally  In a polar covalent bond, one atom is more electronegative, and the atoms do not share the electron equally (casuing partial charges)

18. Ionic Bonds  Atoms sometimes strip electrons from their bonding partners  An example is the transfer of an electron from sodium to chlorine  After the transfer of an electron, both atoms have charges  A charged atom (or molecule) is called an ion  salts Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

19. NaCl Na Cl Na Sodium atom Chlorine atom Cl Na + Sodium ion (a cation) Cl – Chloride ion (an anion) Sodium chloride (NaCl) - A cation is a positively charged ion (giving up) - An anion is a negatively charged ion (receiving) Animation: Ionic/Covalent Bonds Animation: Ionic/Covalent Bonds

20. Weak Chemical Bonds  Most of the strongest bonds in organisms are covalent bonds that form a cell’s molecules  Weak chemical bonds, such as ionic bonds and hydrogen bonds, are also important  Weak chemical bonds reinforce shapes of large molecules and help molecules adhere to each other Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

21. Hydrogen Bonds  A hydrogen bond forms when a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to one electronegative atom is also attracted to another electronegative atom  In living cells, the electronegative partners are usually oxygen or nitrogen atoms Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

22. Fig. 2-16   ++ ++    ++ ++ ++ Water (H 2 O) Ammonia (NH 3 ) Hydrogen bond

23. Van der Waals Interactions  If electrons are distributed asymmetrically in molecules or atoms, they can result in “hot spots” of positive or negative charge  Van der Waals interactions are attractions between molecules that are close together as a result of these charges Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

24. Chemical reactions make and break chemical bonds  Chemical reactions are the making and breaking of chemical bonds  The starting molecules of a chemical reaction are called reactants  The final molecules of a chemical reaction are called products 2 H 2 O2O2 2 H 2 O Reactants Reaction Products

25. Properties of Water  Cohesion: binding together of like molecules, often by hydrogen bonds.  Adhesion: the attraction between different kinds of molecules  Surface tension: related to cohesion, a measure of how difficult it is to stretch or break the surface of a liquid.

26. Solvent vs. Solute  Solvent: dissolving agent (doing the dissolving)  Solute: substance that is being dissolved  Aqueous solution: water is the solvent

27. Types of solutions:  Hydrophilic: an affinity for water. “water loving”.  Colloid: a large molecule that remains suspended and does not dissolve  Hydrophobic: repel water, “water fearing”

28. Acids and Bases  Base: substance that reduces the hydrogen ion concentration.  Solution with more OH- than H+  pH between 9-14  Acid: increases the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution.  Solution will have more H+ than OH-  pH between 1-5 Neutral = H+ = OH-

29.  Buffers: minimize changes in the concentration of H+ and OH- in a solution.  Body internally maintains your pH at a neutral level.