1. Chapter 3 “Atomic Structure”
Honors Special Topic:
Ch “Changes in the Nucleus”

2. OBJECTIVES Describe the changes that accompany nuclear reactions.
Define radioactivity.
Provide examples of nuclear equations and applications.

3. Chapt. 3-4 Changes in the Nucleus
Chemical reactions involve electrons, but nuclei also can also change.
Nuclear reactions change the composition of the atom.
Radioactivity – the spontaneous emission of radiation from an atom.
Radioisotope – an isotope that has an unstable nucleus and undergoes radioactive decay.
Alpha, beta and gamma radiation are produced by nuclear changes (radioactive decay).

4. Nuclear Stability Recall our discussion about isotopes?
Why don’t the nuclei, which contain positively charged protons in a very confined space, fall apart spontaneously?
Strong nuclear force (resulting from the neutrons) are the ‘nuclear glue’.
Do atoms contain the same number of protons and neutrons?
Stable nuclei for elements 1 – 20 generally have equal numbers of protons and neutrons. (n/p =1/1)
As the atom gets larger, more nuclear glue is needed to gain stability. (Additional neutrons needed; 1.5/1. See Fig for the “band of stability.”)
Beyond bismuth (Z = 83), NO NUMBER of neutrons can hold the nucleus together.
All atoms with Z >83 are radioactive!

5. Nuclear Stability (cont’d)
Over 1500 nuclei are known, but only 264 are stable!
These 264 nuclei are unchanged with time.
Lead-206 (124 neutrons + 82 protons) is stable with a n/p ratio of 1.5.
Transmutation – the conversion of an atom of one element into an atom of another element.
Occurs by spontaneous radioactive decay of a nucleus, or…
…by artificial means (synthesis).
Too many neutrons can make an atom unstable as well.
Neutrons decay into a proton and an electron.

6. Types of Radioactive Decay
Alpha Decay (α)
Alpha particles are just helium nuclei.
Mass number = 4 (4 amu)
Charge = 2+
Low penetration power (Paper & clothing stop them.)
Beta Decay (β)
Beta particles are just electrons.
Mass number = 0 (1/1837 amu)
Charge = -1
Medium penetration power (Metal foil stops them).
Gamma Decay (γ)
Gamma radiation is high energy electromagnetic radiation.
Mass number = 0
Charge = 0
High penetration power (Thick lead shield stops them.)

7. Nuclear Equation Rules
The sum of the mass numbers and atomic numbers are the SAME before and after a nuclear reaction.
Electrical charge of alpha particles is generally omitted.
Electrical charge of beta particles is shown as a subscript (where Z is usually shown).

8. Nuclear Equation Examples
Alpha decay of uranium-238
Alpha decay of gold-185
Beta decay of carbon-14
Beta decay of francium-223
Gamma rays often accompany alpha and beta disintegration of a nucleus.
Thorium-230  Radon α + γ
Thorium-234  Protactinium β + γ
Rutherford bombarded nittrogen-14 with α- particles to form F-18, leading to O-17 & proton.
Led to discovery of the proton!

9. Problems
A nuclear reaction produced magnesium-24 and beta radiation. What nucleus was responsible for this?
(Sodium-24)
Mercury-200 and an alpha particle result from the radioactive decay of what nucleus?
(Lead-204)
Sheet 3-4 PP (H/W)

10. Class Activity*
*From Chemistry, Wilbraham, et al., Prentice-Hall, 2002, page 840.
Collect 128 pennies, container, paper, graph paper, calculator, pen/pencil.
Make two-column table with “TRIAL” and “Number of Heads.”
Place pennies in container & shake them up.
Pour pennies onto desk. (Keep them under control!)
Pick out & count “Heads” and set them aside; record data.
Place remaining pennies in container and shake them; repeat the process five times.
Repeat the entire experiment two more times.
Graph “Heads” (y-axis) vs. “Trial” and note shape.
Add new column “Log # Heads” and finish the table.
Graph “Log # Heads’ vs. “Trial” and note shape.

11. Half-life (t1/2)
Half-life (t1/2) – the time required for one-half of the atoms of a radioactive isotope (radioisotope) to emit radiation and decay to products.
Simulating Radioactive Decay
You just won $1,000, but…
…you can only spend half of it in month 1…
…half of the remainder in month 2, etc.
After how many months would you be left with less than $1?
What is the half life for this prize?

12. Common Half-Lives & Radiation*
ISOTOPE
HALF-LIFE
RADIATION
Carbon-14
5,730 years
Beta
Potassium-40
1,25 X 109 years
Beta, gamma
Radon-222
3.8 days
Alpha
Radium-226
1,600 years
Alpha, gamma
Thorium-230
75,400 years
Thorium-234
24.1 days
Uranium-235
7.0 X 108 years
Uranium-238
4.46 X 109 years
*From Chemistry, Wilbraham, et al., Prentice-Hall, 2002, page 847.

13. Applications of Nuclear Reactions
Dating of ancient artifacts (Carbon-14).
Smoke detectors (Americium-241).
Radioactive tracers in medicine (Iodine-131, barium-140, phosphorus-32).
Cancer treatment (Cobalt-60).
Electricity generation (Uranium-235).
Artificial (lab-made) elements (beyond Z = 92).
Bombs (Uranium-235).
Fusion (Combining two small nuclei to form a large nucleus.)
Interested in learning more? See Chapter 24.

14. OBJECTIVES Describe the changes that accompany nuclear reactions.
Define radioactivity.
Provide examples of nuclear equations and applications.