1. Tone at Morpheme Boundaries Answers ː High Tone Lowering (GAAHMG Sudan) /H/  [M] after L + / 2 43 //2 33 / a ɔ l- ɛɛ g  a ɔ l- ɛɛ g‘brother’ /L-HM//L-M/ / 4 43 // 4 43 / lu ɲ - ɛɛ g  lu ɲ - ɛɛ g‘boomerang’ /H-HM//H-HM/ Root Suffix Tone/Tone/Noun SGNoun PL /H/-ə́g /H/kə́skə́s-ə́g‘sorghum’ /M/-ə́g /H/fa ̄ nd ̪ fə ̄ nd ̪ -ə́g‘cheek’ /L/-ə́g /H/bə̀ ɲɟ bə̀ ɲɟ -ə ̄ g‘pulp’ /H/- ɛɛ̄ g /HM/lú ɲ lú ɲ -íi ̄ g‘boomerang’ /M/- ɛɛ̄ g /HM/ra ̄ a ̄ jra ̄ a ̄ j- ɛɛ̄ g‘war’ /L/- ɛɛ̄ g /HM/à ɔ ̀là ɔ ̀l- ɛ̄ɛ̄ g‘brother’

2. Tone at Morpheme Boundaries Review Which 4 frames are the most useful for finding tone changes across word boundaries?

3. Tone at Morpheme Boundaries Review Which 4 frames are the most useful for finding tone changes across word boundaries? 1)High after 3) High before 2)Low after4) Low before [4 4] [4 4] 1) ____ f ʊ r ɪ ‘ ____’s deer’ 3) f ʊ r ɪ ____ ‘deer’s ____’ [2 a] [2 a] 2) ____ keri ‘ ____’s lizard’ 4) keri ____ ‘lizard’s ____’

4. Steps for finding how to write differences in meaning made by tone (3 of 3) 17.Study the Tone System A. Decide how many tone melodies there are B. Decide how many underlying level tone phonemes (contrastive tone heights) C. Find the tone phoneme distribution D. Predict the environment for any tone neutralization and tone allophones E. Find how to predict tone changes across morpheme and word boundaries F. Find differences in words and grammar made only by tone G. Find the functional load of tone H. Decide if/how to write tone in the orthography.

5. Steps for finding how to write differences in meaning made by tone (3 of 3) 17.Study the Tone System E. Find differences in words and grammar made only by tone 1. Find tone minimal pairs in roots. 2. Find tone minimal pairs in attached morphemes. 3. Find grammatical differences made only by tone.

6. Lexical (Word) Tone Contrasts Root tone minimal pairs GAAHMG Sudan /H/ - /M/sə́ə́m ‘hunter’ sə ̄ ə ̄ m‘medicine’ /H/ - /L/d ̪ áár ‘throne’ d ̪ ààr‘eagle’ /H/ - /HL/káár ‘stew’káàr‘male goat’ /H/ - /ML/k ɔ ́ð ɛ ́l‘painting (n)’k ɔ̄ ð ɛ ̀l‘baboon’ /M/ -/L/ə ̄ ə ̄ r‘anger’ə̀ə̀r‘sheep’ /M/ - /ML/ba ̄ a ̄ l‘cave’ba ̄ àl‘instrument’ /M/ - /MH/mi ̄ i ̄ ‘goat’mi ̄ í‘chicken’ /L/ - /ML/d ̪ɛ ̀ ɛ ̀l‘shelf’d ̪ɛ̄ɛ ̀l‘lake’ /L/ - /MH/ ɟɛ ̀ ɛ ̀m‘thing’ ɟɛ̄ɛ ́m‘sieve’ /L/ - /LM/bàr ɔ ̀ ɔ ̀l‘snake type’bàr ɔ̄ɔ̄ l‘cistern’

7. Steps for finding how to write differences in meaning made by tone (3 of 3) 17.Study the Tone System E. Find differences in words and grammar made only by tone 1. Find tone minimal pairs in roots. 2. Find tone minimal pairs in affixes. 3. Find grammatical differences made only by tone.

8. Lexical (Word) Tone Contrasts Attached morpheme tone minimal pairs which have the same grammar GAAHMG Sudan Noun SGPL Suffix /Tone/Noun PL H ka ̄ a ̄ j- ɛ̄ɛ̄ g /M/ ka ̄ a ̄ j- ɛ̄ɛ̄ g‘witch doctor’ H ra ̄ a ̄ j- ɛɛ̄ g /HM/ra ̄ a ̄ j- ɛɛ̄ g‘war, quarrel (n)’ M t ̪ i ̄ rd ̪ -a ̄ g /M/t ̪ i ̄ rd ̪ -ə ̄ g‘farms’ M mi ̄ i ̄ d ̪ -ág /H/mi ̄ i ̄ d ̪ -ə́g‘stones’ HM síi ̄ɟ -ag Tonelesssíí ɟ -ə ̄ g‘tree types’ HM ká ɛ̄ d ̪ -a ̄ g /M/ká ɛ̄ d ̪ -a ̄ g‘cups’

9. Steps for finding how to write differences in meaning made by tone (3 of 3) 17.Study the Tone System E. Find differences in words and grammar made only by tone 1. Find tone minimal pairs in roots. 2. Find tone minimal pairs in affixes. 3. Find grammatical differences made only by tone.

10. Grammatical (role, function) Tone Contrasts Attached morpheme tone minimal pairs which have different grammar GAAHMG Sudan Suffix /Tone/Word Grammar -an /MH/k ɔ ́m-an Continuous Past ‘he was chopping’ -án /H/k ɔ ́m-án Continuous Present‘he is chopping’ -a ̄ /M/d ̪ ə ̄ m-ə ̄ Copula‘is an Arab’ -á /H/d ̪ ə ̄ m-ə́Definite‘this Arab’

11. Grammatical (role, function) Tone Contrasts Tone is a morpheme by itself (without segments) that attaches to words GAAHMG Sudan ToneVerb Grammar Hk ɔ ́mInfinitive‘chop’ -Má k ɔ m First Person Singular‘I chop’ -H ɛ̄ k ɔ ́mThird Person Singular‘he chops’ -L ɛ̄ g k ɔ̂ mThird Person Plural‘they chop’ -Má k ɔ ́m-s ɔ̄ First Person Singular‘I chopped’ -H ɛ̄ k ɔ ́m-s ɔ Third Person Singular‘he chopped’ -L ɛ̄ g k ɔ ́m-s ɔ ̀Third Person Plural‘they chopped’ Completive suffix –s ɔ is toneless

12. Grammatical (role, function) Tone Contrasts Tone is a morpheme by itself that replaces the underlying tone of words GAAHMG Sudan Root Tone on noun Genitive tone on noun Ht ̪ɔɔ ́ MLt ̪ɔ̄ɔ ̀‘cow’ L d ̪ ììMLd ̪ i ̄ ì‘rat’ HLwírìML wi ̄ rì‘bird’ HMsúlə ̄ ML su ̄ lə‘clan member ML ɲ u ̄ u ̄ ìML ɲ u ̄ u ̄ ì‘leopard’ LHàgáárML a ̄ ga ̄ àr‘hunter’ LMm ɔ ̀ra ̄ a ̄ ML m ɔ̄ ra ̄ à‘governor’ MHMku ̄ d ̪ úúri ̄ i ̄ ML ku ̄ d ̪ u ̄ u ̄ ri ̄ ì‘bird type’ ‘BELI Sudan Root Tone on nounPrepositional tone on noun Ld ɔ ̀‘head’Md ɔ̄ ‘on’ Lk ͡ pà‘mouth’Mk ͡ pa ̄ ‘at’ L ɓɔ ̀‘footprint’Mb ɔ̄ ‘for’ Lk ɔ ̀‘eye’Mk ɔ̄ ‘between’ Lrò‘back’Mro ̄ ‘ahead of’

13. LEXICAL (Word) TONE: Difference in roots made only by tone (tone minimal pairs) /H/ - /M/sə́ə́m ‘hunter’ sə ̄ ə ̄ m‘medicine’ Difference in attached morphemes made only by tone, where the morphemes have the same grammar. - ɛ̄ɛ̄ g /M/ ka ̄ a ̄ j- ɛ̄ɛ̄ gPlural noun‘witch doctor’ - ɛɛ̄ g /HM/ra ̄ a ̄ j- ɛɛ̄ gPlural noun ‘war, quarrel’ GRAMATICAL (Role, function) TONE ː Difference in attached morphemes made only by tone, where the morphemes have different grammar. -an /MH/k ɔ ́m-an Continuous Past ‘he was chopping’ -án /H/k ɔ ́m-án Continuous Present‘he is chopping’ Difference in grammar made only by an attached tone morpheme -M /k ɔ m-M/  k ɔ m First Person Singular‘I chop’ -L /k ɔ ́m-L/  k ɔ̂ mThird Person Plural‘they chop’ Difference in grammar made only by a tone morpheme replacement H /t ̪ɔɔ ́/  t ̪ɔɔ Subject noun‘cow’ ML /t ̪ɔɔ ́ML/  t ̪ɔ̄ɔ ̀ Genitive noun‘of cow’

14. Steps for finding how to write differences in meaning made by tone (3 of 3) 17.Study the Tone System A. Decide how many tone melodies there are B. Decide how many underlying level tone phonemes (contrastive tone heights) C. Find the tone phoneme distribution D. Predict the environment for any tone neutralization and tone allophones E. Find how to predict tone changes across morpheme and word boundaries F. Find differences in words and grammar made only by tone G. Find the functional load of tone H. Decide if/how to write tone in the orthography.

15. Try to guess the meaning of the following even though there are sounds or words missingː 1.en_ouragemen _ 2._nter_ain_ent 3.He stood ___ from the chair. 4.After many years of fighting the illness, he kicked the ____. 5.... he went to the ____. And when he arrived at the market, he...

16. Try to guess the meaning of the following even though there are sounds or words missingː 1.Encouragement 2.Intertainment 3.He stood up from the chair. 4.After many years of fighting the illness, he kicked the bucket. 5.... he went to the market. And when he arrived at the market, he... Sometimes, the meaning can still be communicated without all the phonemes or words.

17. Try to guess the meaning of the following even though there are sounds missingː be__ b__t

18. Try to guess the meaning of the following even though there are sounds missingː be__ b__t betbitbeat bedbatbait bellboatbought beenbootbut bet In places where there are many possible phonemes, the meaning cannot be communicated without all the phonemes.

19. Try to guess the meaning of the following even though there are words missingː We are therefore Christ’s ___________, as though God were making his appeal through us. We ______ you on Christ’s behalf: Be ________ to God.

20. Try to guess the meaning of the following even though there are words missingː We are therefore Christ’s ambassadors, as though God were making his appeal through us. We implore (beg) you on Christ’s behalf: Be reconciled (brought near) to God. In some sentences, the meaning cannot be communicated without all the words.

21. FUNCTIONAL LOAD ː The number of environments and words in which a phoneme occurs, and the frequency of those environments and words. There are only 3 of 1000 nouns with /e/and 50 of 1000 nouns with / ɛ /, bep ‘giraffe’ d ɛ p‘goat’ The functional load of a rare phoneme such as /e/ is low. This phoneme could have the same symbol as for / ɛ / (under-differentiation) without problem.

22. Steps for finding how to write differences in meaning made by tone (3 of 3) 17.Study the Tone System G. Find the functional load of tone 1. Find the ratio of words in tone minimal pairs to words not in tone minimal pairs. 2. In different kinds of texts, find the ratio of a grammatical distinction made only by tone to the number of sentences. 3. Compare the functional load of tone to the functional load of other communication factors (number of syllable types, consonants, vowels, etc)

23. Functional Load of Lexical Tone Same parts of Speech (GAAHMG Sudan) Nouns/M/ - /MH/mi ̄ i ̄ ‘goat’mi ̄ í‘chicken’ Verbs/L/ - /HM/b ɛ ̀l‘hit’b ɛ l‘call’ Demonstratives/H/ - /L/n ɛɛ ‘this’n ɛ ̀ ɛ ̀‘these’ Prepositions/L/ - /H/ ɛ ̀‘with’ ɛ ‘to, at’ In Gaahmg, 44 of 700 nouns (6%) are in tone minimal pairs. 3% (or higher) in the same part of speech is moderate lexical tone functional load, and may need to be represented in the orthography. Different parts of Speech /H/ - /M/ká ɛ ́n ‘complete (ADJ)’ ka ̄ɛ̄ n‘yesterday (ADV)’ In Gaahmg, 75 of 900 in words (8%) are in tone minimal pairs. 5% (or higher) in all parts of speech is moderate lexical tone functional load, and may need to be represented in the orthography.

24. Exercise 1 ː Find all tone minimal pair contrasts. Find the lexical tone functional load in nouns. Find the tone functional load in words. ‘BELI Sudan 1. /L/ ɗ ò‘thigh’2. /L/k ɔ ̀‘eye’ 3. /H/ ɓɪ ‘day’4. /H/ ɗɔ ‘thing’ 5. /L/ ɓɔ ̀‘footprint’6. /L/ ɓ ò‘father’ 7. /LM/də‘grandparent’8. /MH/pi‘bamboo’ 9. /H/dá‘meat’10./L/bì‘hair’ 11./LM/bi‘place’12./HL/ ɗɔ̂ ‘cultivate (V)’ 13./H/ko‘seed’14./HL/ ɗ o ̂ ‘put down (V)’

25. Exercise 1 ː Find all tone minimal pair contrasts. Find the lexical tone functional load in nouns. Find the tone functional load in words. ‘BELI Sudan 1. /L/ ɗ ò‘thigh’2. /L/k ɔ ̀‘eye’ 3. /H/ ɓɪ ‘day’4. /H/ ɗɔ ‘thing’ 5. /L/ ɓɔ ̀‘footprint’6. /L/ ɓ ò‘father’ 7. /LM/də‘grandparent’8. /MH/pi‘bamboo’ 9. /H/dá‘meat’10./L/bì‘hair’ 11./LM/bi‘place’12./HL/ ɗɔ̂ ‘cultivate (V)’ 13./H/kó‘seed’14./HL/ ɗ o ̂ ‘put down (V)’ Contrasts L-HL ɗ ò‘thigh’ ɗ o ̂ ‘put down (V)’ H-HL ɗɔ ‘thing’ ɗɔ̂ ‘cultivate (V)’ L-LMbì‘hair’bi‘place’ 2 of 14 nouns (14%) are in tone minimal pairs with other nouns 6 of 14 words (42%) are in tone minimal pairs with other words.

26. Steps for finding how to write differences in meaning made by tone (3 of 3) 17.Study the Tone System G. Find the functional load of tone 1. Find the ratio of words in tone minimal pairs to words not in tone minimal pairs. 2. In different kinds of texts, find the ratio of a grammatical distinction made only by tone to the number of sentences. 3. Compare the functional load of tone to the functional load of other communication factors (number of syllable types, consonants, vowels, etc)

27. Functional Load of Grammatical Tone ‘BELI Sudan Root Tone on noun Prepositional tone on noun Ld ɔ ̀ g ɔ ̀m ʊ ‘head of man’ Md ɔ̄ g ɔ ̀m ʊ ‘on man’ Lk ͡ pà g ɔ ̀m ʊ ‘mouth of man’ Mk ͡ pa ̄ g ɔ ̀m ʊ ‘at man’ L ɓɔ ̀ g ɔ ̀m ʊ ‘footprint of man’ Mb ɔ̄ g ɔ ̀m ʊ ‘for man’ Lk ɔ ̀ g ɔ ̀m ʊ ‘eye of man’ Mk ɔ̄ g ɔ ̀m ʊ ‘between man’ Lrò g ɔ ̀m ʊ ‘back of man’ Mro ̄ g ɔ ̀m ʊ ‘ahead of man’ In one ‘BELI story (narrative), there were 9 times in 17 sentences (50%) that one of these words occurred 10% or higher in one story is moderate grammatical tone functional load, and may need to be represented in the orthography.

28. Steps for finding how to write differences in meaning made by tone (3 of 3) 17.Study the Tone System E. Find the functional load of tone 1. Find the ratio of words in tone minimal pairs to words not in tone minimal pairs. 2. In different kinds of texts, find the ratio of a grammatical distinction made only by tone to the number of sentences. 3. Compare the functional load of tone to the functional load of other communication factors (number of syllable types, consonants, vowels, etc)

29. In each picture, blue blocks hold up the same size house. In which picture does each block have to hold more weight?

30. In each picture, blue blocks hold up the same size house. In which picture does each block have to hold more weight? When there are fewer blocks, each block holds more weight.

31. Communication Factors Number of tone melodies (H, L, HL, LH) Number of tone phonemes (/H/, /M/, /L/) Number of consonant phonemes (/p/, /b/) Number of vowel phonemes (/e/, / ɛ /) Number of syllable types (CV, CVC, CVCC) Number of word syllable patterns (CV, CVCV, CVCVC) For each factor, the fewer the number of items, the greater the functional load on those items. DIDINGA Sudan has 36 consonant phonemes; LAARIM Sudan has 20. In which language do consonants have more functional load? GAAHMG has 6 vowel phonemes; ‘BELI has 10. In which language do vowel phonemes have more functional load?

32. ‘BELI has more vowel phonemes to hold up the meaning. ‘BELI / ɪ, ɛ, a, ɔ, ʊ / /i, e, ə, o, u/ Gaahmg has fewer vowel phonemes to hold up the meaning. So vowel phonemes in Gaahmg have a higher functional load than vowel phonemes in ‘Beli. GAAHMG / ɛ, ɔ, a/ /i, u, ə/

33. Communication Factors Number of tone melodies (H, L, HL, LH) Number of tone phonemes (/H/, /M/, /L/) Number of consonant phonemes (/p/, /b/) Number of vowel phonemes (/e/, / ɛ /) Number of syllable types (CV, CVC, CVCC) Number of word syllable patterns (CV, CVCV, CVCVC) The fewer the items in non-tone factors, the greater the tone functional load. LAARIM has 4 syllable types and 10 word syllable patterns; ‘BELI has 1 syllable type and 2 word syllable patterns. Which language has greater tone functional load?

34. Laarim has more items in other communication factors to hold up the meaning. LAARIM ki ̄ d ̪ o ̄ o ̄ rí‘lyre’ ‘Beli has fewer items in other communication factors. It must rely more on tone to hold up the meaning. So, tone has a higher functional load in ‘Beli than in Laarim. ‘BELI ki ‘stool’

35. Class Assignmentː Find all tone minimal pair contrasts in Yoruba pronouns (either present pronouns or possessive pronouns). Say whether the functional load of tone in Yoruba pronouns is Low, Moderate or High. Reading Assignment Tone Analysis for Field Linguists (5.2-5.3.1) pg 95-102; (5.7-5.8) pg. 139-143.