1. Chapter 3 Human Development

2. Heredity
Developmental psychology: The study of progressive changes in behavior and abilities
Heredity (nature): Genetic transmission of physical and psychological characteristics from parents to their children
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid): Molecular structure shaped like a double helix that contains coded genetic information

3. Identical twins. Twins who share identical genes (identical twins) demonstrate the powerful influence of heredity. Even when they are reared apart, identical twins are strikingly alike in motor skills, physical development, and appearance. At the same time, twins are less alike as adults than they were as children, which shows environmental influences are at work (Larsson, Larsson, & Lichtenstein, 2004).
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4. Genes
Specific areas on a strand of DNA that carry hereditary information
Dominant: The gene’s feature will appear each time the gene is present
Recessive: The gene’s feature will appear only if it is paired with another recessive gene
Still only 25% chance trait will be expressed

5. Polygenic Characteristics
Personal traits or physical properties that are influenced by many genes working in combination

6. Figure 3.1
(Top left) Linked molecules (organic bases) make up the “rungs” on DNA’s twisted “molecular ladder.” The order of these molecules serves as a code for genetic information. The code provides a genetic blueprint that is unique for each individual (except identical twins). The drawing shows only a small section of a DNA strand. An entire strand of DNA is composed of billions of smaller molecules. (Bottom left) The nucleus of each cell in the body contains chromosomes made up of tightly wound coils of DNA. (Don’t be misled by the drawing: Chromosomes are microscopic, and the chemical molecules that make up DNA are even smaller.)
Fig. 3-1, p. 80

7. Figure 3.2
This image, made with a scanning electron microscope, shows several pairs of human chromosomes. (Colors are artificial.)
Fig. 3-2, p. 80

8. Figure 3.3
Gene patterns for children of brown-eyed parents, where each parent has one brown-eye gene and one blue-eye gene. Because the brown-eye gene is dominant, 1 child in 4 will be blue-eyed. Thus, there is a significant chance that two brown-eyed parents will have a blue-eyed child.
Fig. 3-3, p. 80

9. Developmental Level
An individual’s current state of physical, emotional, and intellectual development

10. Environment (Nurture)
All external conditions that affect a person, especially the effects of learning

11. Prenatal Issues
Congenital problem: A problem or defect that occurs during prenatal development; “birth defect”
Genetic disorder: Problem caused by inherited characteristics from parents (e.g., cystic fibrosis)

12. Teratogens
Anything capable of directly causing birth defects (e.g., narcotics, radiation, cigarette smoke, lead, and cocaine)

13. Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)
Caused by repeated heavy alcohol consumption during pregnancy
Infants:
Have low birth weight, a small head, body defects, and facial malformations
Lack cupid’s bow, the bow-shaped portion of the upper lip (look in the mirror to see)

14. Sensitive Period
A period of increased sensitivity to environmental influences; also, a time when certain events must occur for normal development to take place

15. Some of the typical features of children suffering from fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) include a small nonsymmetrical head, a short nose, a flattened area between the eyes, oddly shaped eyes, and a thin upper lip. Many of these features become less noticeable by adolescence. However, mental retardation and other problems commonly follow the FAS child into adulthood. The child shown here represents a moderate example of FAS.
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16. Environments: Deprivation and Enrichment
Deprivation: Lack of normal stimulation, nutrition, comfort, or love
Enrichment: When an environment is deliberately made more complex and intellectually stimulating and emotionally supportive

17. Reaction Range
Limits that one’s environment places on the effects of heredity

18. Children who grow up in poverty run a high risk of experiencing many forms of deprivation. There is evidence that lasting damage to social, emotional, and cognitive development occurs when children must cope with severe early deprivation.
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19. Figure 3.5
The effect of heredity on the development of human traits, such as intelligence, can often be influenced by environmental circumstances. A child with average genes for intelligence growing up in an average environment might have an average IQ score as an adult. However, growing up in a deprived environment might result in a somewhat lower IQ score and growing up in an enriched environment might result in a somewhat higher IQ score. In this way, the environment sets a range within which our hereditary potential is actually expressed. This range is called the reaction range.
Fig. 3-5, p. 84

20. Temperament and Environment
Temperament: The inherited physical “core” of personality; includes sensitivity, irritability, distractibility, and typical mood (Kagan, 2000)

21. Easy Children
40%; relaxed and agreeable

22. Difficult Children
10%; moody, intense, easily angered

23. Slow-to-Warm-Up Children
15%; restrained, unexpressive, shy

24. Remaining Children
Do not fit into any specific category (Chess & Thomas, 1986)

25. Newborns (Neonates) and Their Reflexes

26. Grasping Reflex
If an object is placed in the neonate’s palm, she’ll grasp it automatically
All reflexes are automatic responses (i.e., they come from nature, not nurture)

27. Rooting Reflex
Lightly touch the infant’s cheek and he’ll turn toward the object and attempt to nurse; helps infant find bottle or breast

28. Sucking Reflex
Touch an object or nipple to the infant’s mouth and she’ll make rhythmic sucking movements

29. Moro Reflex
If a baby’s position is abruptly changed or if he is startled by a loud noise, he will make a hugging motion

30. Figure 3.6
Infant imitation. In the top row of photos, Andrew Meltzoff makes facial gestures at an infant. The bottom row records the infant’s responses. Videotapes of Meltzoff and of tested infants helped ensure objectivity.
Fig. 3-6, p. 86

31. Figure 3.7
(a) Eye movements and fixation points of infants are observed in Fantz’s “looking chamber.” (b) Thirteen-week-old infants prefer concentric and curved patterns like those on the left to nonconcentric and straight-line patterns like those on the right. (c) When they are just days old, infants pay more attention to the faces of people who are gazing directly at them. (d) Infants look at normal faces longer than at scrambled faces and at both faces longer than designs, like the one on the right. (Photo a courtesy of David Linton. Drawing from “The Origin of Form Perception” by Robert L. Fantz, Copyright © 1961 by Scientific American, Inc. All rights reserved.)
Fig. 3-7a, p. 86

32. Figure 3.7
(a) Eye movements and fixation points of infants are observed in Fantz’s “looking chamber.” (b) Thirteen-week-old infants prefer concentric and curved patterns like those on the left to nonconcentric and straight-line patterns like those on the right. (c) When they are just days old, infants pay more attention to the faces of people who are gazing directly at them. (d) Infants look at normal faces longer than at scrambled faces and at both faces longer than designs, like the one on the right. (Photo a courtesy of David Linton. Drawing from “The Origin of Form Perception” by Robert L. Fantz, Copyright © 1961 by Scientific American, Inc. All rights reserved.)
Fig. 3-7b, p. 86

33. Figure 3.8
Motor development. Most infants follow an orderly pattern of motor development. Although the order in which children progress is similar, there are large individual differences in the ages at which each ability appears. The ages listed are averages for American children. It is not unusual for many of the skills to appear 1 or 2 months earlier than average or several months later (Harris & Liebert, 1991). Parents should not be alarmed if a child’s behavior differs some from the average.
Fig. 3-8, p. 87

34. Maturation
Physical growth and development of the body, brain, and nervous system
Increased muscular control occurs in patterns; order of maturation is almost universal
Cephalocaudal: From head to toe
Proximodistal: From center of the body to the extremities

35. Figure 3.9
Psychologist Carolyn Rovee-Collier has shown that babies as young as 3 months old can learn to control their movements. In her experiments, babies lie on their backs under a colorful crib mobile. A ribbon is tied around the baby’s ankle and connected to the mobile. Whenever babies spontaneously kick their legs, the mobile jiggles and rattles. Within a few minutes, infants learn to kick faster. Their reward for kicking is a chance to see the mobile move (Hayne & Rovee-Collier, 1995).
Fig. 3-9, p. 88

36. Emotional Development
Basic emotions: Anger, fear, joy; appear to be unlearned
Social smile: Smiling elicited by social stimuli; like seeing a parent’s face

37. Social Development
Development of self-awareness, attachment to parents/caregivers, and relationships with other children/adults

38. Figure 3.11
Infants display many of the same emotional expressions as adults do. Carroll Izard believes such expressions show that distinct emotions appear within the first months of life. Other theorists argue that specific emotions come into focus more gradually, as an infant’s nervous system matures. Either way, parents can expect to see a full range of basic emotions by the end of a baby’s first year.
Fig. 3-11, p. 88

39. Contact Comfort (Harlow)
Pleasant and reassuring feeling babies get from touching something warm and soft, especially their mother

40. Figure 3.12
An infant monkey clings to a cloth-covered surrogate mother. Baby monkeys become attached to the cloth “contact-comfort” mother but not to a similar wire mother. This is true even when the wire mother provides food. Contact comfort may also underlie the tendency of children to become attached to inanimate objects, such as blankets or stuffed toys. However, a study of 2- to 3-year-old blanket-attached children found that they were no more insecure than others (Passum, 1987). (So maybe Linus is okay after all.)
Fig. 3-12, p. 89

41. Attachment
Emotional attachment: Close emotional bond that infants form with parents, caregivers, or others
Separation anxiety: Crying and signs of fear when a child is left alone or is with a stranger; generally appears around 8-12 months
Separation anxiety disorder: Severe and prolonged distress displayed by children when separated from parents/caregivers
Children usually grow out of this

42. Quality of Infant Attachment (Ainsworth)
Secure: Stable and positive emotional bond
Insecure-avoidant: Anxious emotional bond; tendency to avoid reunion with parent or caregiver
Insecure-ambivalent: Anxious emotional bond; desire to be with parent or caregiver and some resistance to being reunited with mother

43. Figure 3.13
In the United States, about two thirds of all children from middle-class families are securely attached. About 1 child in 3 is insecurely attached. (Percentages are approximate.) (From Kaplan, 1998.)
Fig. 3-13, p. 90

44. Affectional Needs
Emotional needs for love and affection

45. Figure 3.14
Mother-child and father-child interactions. This graph shows what occurred on routine days in a sample of more than 1,400 Australian homes. Mothers spend about twice as long each day on child care, compared with fathers. Further, mothers spend more time on physical and emotional care (such as feeding, bathing, soothing) than on interactive care (such as playing, reading, activities); fathers show the reverse pattern. Finally, mothers spend more time on travel (for instance, driving children to sports or music lessons), communication (such as talking to teachers about their children), and passive care (supervising children while they play). (Adapted from Craig, 2006.)
Fig. 3-14, p. 92

46. Parenting Styles (Baumrind, 2005)

47. Authoritarian Parents
Enforce rigid rules and demand strict obedience to authority
Children tend to be emotionally stiff and lacking in curiosity

48. Overly Permissive Give little guidance
Allow too much freedom, or don’t hold children accountable for their actions
Children tend to be dependent and immature and frequently misbehave

49. Authoritative
Provide firm and consistent guidance combined with love and affection
Children tend to be competent, self-controlled, independent, and assertive

50. Language Acquisition
Cooing: Repetition of vowel sounds by infants; typically starts at 6-8 weeks
Babbling: Repetition of meaningless language sounds (e.g., babababa); uses consonants B, D, M, and G; starts at 7 months

51. More on Language Acquisition
Single-word stage: The child says one word at a time
Telegraphic speech: Two-word sentences that communicate a single idea (e.g., “want cookie”)

52. Noam Chomsky and the Roots of Language
Biological disposition: Presumed readiness of humans to learn certain skills such as how to use language
Chomsky: Language patterns are inborn

53. Signal
In early language development, any behavior, such as touching, vocalizing, gazing, or smiling, that allows nonverbal interaction and turn-taking between parent and child

54. Parentese (Motherese)
Pattern of speech used when talking to infants
Marked by higher-pitched voice; short, simple sentences; slowed speech and exaggerated voice inflections; and repetition

55. Jean Piaget and Cognitive Development
Piaget believed that all children passed through a set series of stages during their cognitive development; like Freud, he was a stage theorist

56. p. 99

57. Piaget: Assimilation
Application of existing mental patterns to new situations; new situation is “assimilated” to existing mental schemes

58. Piaget: Accommodation
Existing ideas are changed to fit new requirements; mental schemes are changed to accommodate new information
More advanced form of cognitive processing

59. Four Stages of Piagetian Cognitive Development

60. The Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 Years)
All sensory input and motor responses are coordinated; most intellectual development here is nonverbal
Object permanence: Concept that objects still exist when they are out of sight

61. Video: Sensorimotor Stage: Absence of Object Permanence

62. Figure 3.18
The panels on the left show a possible event, in which an infant watches as a toy is placed behind the right of two screens. After a delay of 70 seconds, the toy is brought into view from behind the right screen. In the two panels on the right, an impossible event occurs. The toy is placed behind the left screen and retrieved from behind the right. (A duplicate toy was hidden there before testing.) Eight-month-old infants react with surprise when they see the impossible event staged for them. Their reaction implies that they remember where the toy was hidden. Infants appear to have a capacity for memory and thinking that greatly exceeds what Piaget claimed is possible during the sensorimotor period. (Adapted from Baillargeon et al., 1989.)
Fig. 3-18, p. 101

63. Video: Sensorimotor Stage: Presence of Object Permanence

64. The Preoperational Stage (2-7 Years)
Children begin to use language and think symbolically, yet their thinking is still intuitive and egocentric

65. Intuitive Thinking
Makes little use of reasoning and logic

66. Egocentric Thinking
Child is unable to accommodate viewpoints of others; thoughts are self-centered

67. Transformations
Mentally changing the shape or form of a mental image or idea; children younger than 6 or 7 cannot do this

68. Figure 3.14
Mother-child and father-child interactions. This graph shows what occurred on routine days in a sample of more than 1,400 Australian homes. Mothers spend about twice as long each day on child care, compared with fathers. Further, mothers spend more time on physical and emotional care (such as feeding, bathing, soothing) than on interactive care (such as playing, reading, activities); fathers show the reverse pattern. Finally, mothers spend more time on travel (for instance, driving children to sports or music lessons), communication (such as talking to teachers about their children), and passive care (supervising children while they play). (Adapted from Craig, 2006.)
Fig. 3-14, p. 92

69. Video: Preoperational Conservation of Quantity

70. The Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 Years)
Children become able to use concepts of time, space, volume, and number BUT in ways that remain simplified and concrete, not abstract

71. Piaget’s Conservation
Mass, weight, and volume of matter remain unchanged even when the shape or appearance of objects changes

72. Video: Concrete Operational Stage: Conservation of Quantity

73. Piaget’s Reversibility of Thought
Relationships involving equality or identity can be reversed
If A=B then B=A

74. Figure 3.16
Children under age 7 intuitively assume that a volume of liquid increases when it is poured from a short, wide container into a taller, thinner one. This boy thinks the tall container holds more than the short one. Actually each holds the same amount of liquid. Children make such judgments based on the height of the liquid, not its volume.
Fig. 3-16, p. 98

75. Video: Concrete-Operational Stage: Abstract Reasoning

76. The Formal Operations Stage (11 Years and Up)
Thinking now includes abstract, theoretical, and hypothetical ideas
Abstract principles: Concepts and examples removed from specific examples and concrete situations
Hypothetical possibilities: Suppositions, guesses, or projections

77. Figure 3.17
Between the ages of 3 and 6 a tremendous wave of growth occurs in connections among neurons in the frontal areas of the brain. This corresponds to the time when children make rapid progress in their ability to think symbolically. Between ages 7 and 15, peak synaptic growth shifts to the temporal and parietal lobes. During this period children become increasingly adept at using language, a specialty of the temporal lobes. In the late teens, the brain actively destroys unneeded connections, especially in the frontal lobes. This pruning of synapses sharpens the brain’s capacity for abstract thinking (Restak, 2001).
Fig. 3-17, p. 100

78. Video: The Formal-Operational Stage: Abstract Reasoning

79. Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
Children’s cognitive development is heavily influenced by sociocultural factors
Children’s thinking develops through dialogues with more capable people

80. Zone of Proximal Development
Range of tasks a child cannot yet master alone even though they are close to having the necessary mental skills; they need guidance from a skilled partner in order to complete the task

81. Scaffolding
Framework or temporary support. Adults help children learn how to think by scaffolding, or supporting, their attempts to solve a problem or to discover principles
Scaffolding must be responsive to a child’s needs

82. Types of Child Discipline
Power assertion: Using physical punishment or a show of force (e.g., removing toys or privileges)
Withdrawal of love: Withholding affection
Management techniques: Combine praise, recognition, approval, rules, and reasoning to encourage desirable behavior

83. Effective Parenting Have stable rules of conduct (consistency)
Show mutual respect, love, encouragement, and shared enjoyment
Have effective communication
You-message: Threats, name-calling, accusing, bossing, criticizing, or lecturing (avoid this)
I-message: Tells children the effect their behavior had on you (use this)

84. Consequences
Natural consequences: Effects that naturally follow a particular behavior; intrinsic effects
Logical consequences: Rational and reasonable effects defined by parents

85. Adolescence Culturally defined period between childhood and adulthood
Puberty: Hormonal changes promote rapid physical growth and sexual maturity

86. Life Events
Developmental tasks: Any skill that must be mastered, or personal change that must take place, for optimal development (e.g., learning to read and adjusting to sexual maturity)
Psychosocial dilemma: Conflict between personal impulses and the social world

87. Lawrence Kohlberg and Moral Development
Moral development: When we acquire values, beliefs, and thinking abilities that guide responsible behavior
Stage theorist, like Freud and Erikson

88. Kohlberg’s Three Levels of Moral Development
Preconventional moral reasoning: Moral thinking based on consequences of one’s actions (punishment, reward, exchange of favors) or choices
Conventional moral reasoning: Reasoning based on a desire to please others or to follow accepted rules and values
Postconventional moral reasoning: Follows self-chosen moral principles, not those supplied by outside authorities

89. Erik Erikson’s Eight Stages of Psychosocial Dilemmas

90. Personality theorist Erik Erikson (1903–1994) is best known for his life-stage theory of human development.
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91. Stage One: Trust versus Mistrust (Birth–1)
Children are completely dependent on others
Trust: Established when babies given adequate warmth, touching, love, and physical care
Mistrust: Caused by inadequate or unpredictable care and by cold, indifferent, and rejecting parents

92. Stage Two: Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt (1–3)
Autonomy: Doing things for themselves
Overprotective or ridiculing parents may cause children to doubt abilities and feel shameful about their actions

93. Stage Three: Initiative versus Guilt (3–5)
Initiative: Parents reinforce via giving children freedom to play, use imagination, and ask questions
Guilt: May occur if parents criticize, prevent play, or discourage a child’s questions

94. Stage Four: Industry versus Inferiority (6–12)
Industry: Occurs when child is praised for productive activities, such as painting and building
Inferiority: Occurs if child’s efforts are regarded as messy or inadequate

95. Stage Five (Adolescence): Identity versus Role Confusion
Identity: For adolescents; problems answering, “Who am I?”
Role Confusion: Occurs when adolescents are unsure of where they are going and who they are

96. Stage Six (Young Adulthood): Intimacy versus Isolation
Intimacy: Ability to care about others and to share experiences with them
Isolation: Feeling alone and uncared for in life

97. Stage Seven (Middle Adulthood): Generativity versus Stagnation
Generativity: Interest in guiding the next generation
Stagnation: When one is only concerned with one’s own needs and comforts

98. Stage Eight (Late Adulthood): Integrity versus Despair
Integrity: Self-respect; developed when people have lived richly and responsibly
Despair: Occurs when previous life events are viewed with regret; experiences heartache and remorse

99. Figure 3.19
Dramatic differences in physical size and maturity are found in adolescents of the same age. The girls pictured are all 13, the boys 16. Maturation that occurs earlier or later than average can affect the “search for identity.” (Reprinted with permission of Nelson Prentiss.)
Fig. 3-19, p. 103

100. Gerontology and the Study of Aging
Ageism: Discrimination or prejudice based on a person’s age
Gerontologists study aging and its effects
Intellectual Abilities:
Fluid abilities: Abilities requiring speed or rapid learning; based on perceptual and motor abilities; may decrease with age
Crystallized abilities: Learned (accumulated) knowledge and skills; vocabulary and basic facts

101. Death and Dying; Elizabeth Kubler-Ross
Ross was a thanatologist: One who studies emotional and behavioral reactions to death and dying
Ross described five basic reactions to death that occur, not necessarily in the following order or experienced by everyone

102. Five Basic Reactions to Death (Kubler-Ross)

103. Denial and Isolation
Denying death’s reality and isolating oneself from information confirming that death will occur (“It’s a mistake; the doctors are wrong”)

104. Anger
Asking, “Why me?”
Anger may then be projected onto the living

105. Bargaining
Terminally ill will bargain with God or with themselves (“If I can live longer I’ll be a better person”)

106. Depression
Feelings of futility, exhaustion and deep sadness

107. Acceptance If death is not sudden, many will accept death calmly
Person is at peace finally with the concept of death

108. Death may be inevitable, but it can be faced with dignity and sometimes even humor. Mel Blanc’s famous sign-off, “That’s all folks,” is engraved on a marble headstone over his grave. Blanc was the voice of Bugs Bunny, Porky Pig, and many other cartoon characters.
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