1. Chapter 12-3: RNA and Protein Synthesis

2. What is a gene?
A gene is a set of DNA instructions that control the synthesis of proteins within the cell.
This process, called protein synthesis, involves 2 steps: transcription and translation.

3. How does a gene work?
DNA cannot leave the nucleus, so a copy is made in the form of a similar nucleic acid called RNA (ribonucleic acid) during transcription. After DNA is used to make RNA, the RNA is then used to make proteins during translation by ribosomes in the cytoplasm.

4. How is DNA different from RNA?
RNA is a nucleic acid similar to DNA with 3 differences:
RNA contains the sugar ribose and DNA contains the sugar deoxyribose
RNA is single-stranded, DNA is double-stranded

5. How is DNA different from RNA?
RNA contains uracil instead of thymine. Uracil, like thymine, is a pyrimidine (contains one ring).

6. Three types of RNA messenger RNA (mRNA):
carries a copy of the information in DNA.
This type of RNA acts as a “messenger” bringing the information in the DNA to the ribosome.

7. this RNA is found with ribosomes.
ribosomal RNA (rRNA):
this RNA is found with ribosomes.
Recall that ribosomes synthesize proteins.
Ribosomes are made of both proteins and rRNA.
2 subunits

8. Label this figure on your notes!
Transfer RNA
3. transfer RNA (tRNA):
this RNA brings amino acids to the ribosome to be added to the polypeptide chain that is being made at the ribosome.
There is one tRNA for each of the 20 amino acids.
Amino acid
tRNA
anticodon

9. Central Dogma of Molecular Biology
See board

10. Transcription
Transcription is the process in which the nucleotide sequence of DNA is copied, or transcribed into a complementary nucleotide sequence of RNA.
DNA is like the “master plan” and RNA is like the “blueprint.” The master plan stays in the nucleus (the office) and the blueprint can be taken to the ribosome (construction site).
Because DNA is in the nucleus, transcription occurs in the nucleus of the cell.
When transcription is finished, the RNA moves to the cytoplasm. DNA cannot leave the nucleus!!

11. Transcription
5. The enzyme RNA polymerase is used to make RNA. RNA polymerase:
A. binds to the DNA,
B. separates the DNA, and
C. uses only one strand of DNA as a template to make a complementary RNA strand. RNA Polymerase reads 3’  5’

12. Transcription How does RNA look different than DNA?
D. Once RNA is made, the RNA detaches from the template strand, leaves the nucleus through nuclear pores, and enters the cytoplasm of the cell
RNA polymerase
DNA
RNA
How does RNA look different than DNA?
Do RNA and DNA leave the nucleus?

13. Video Clip: Transcription

14. Translation
RNA is used to make protein in a process called translation.
Remember that proteins, a.k.a. polypeptides, are macromolecules made of monomers called amino acids.

15. The Genetic Code
In RNA, the nucleotides are read in “words” made of 3 nucleotide “letters”. Each “word” is called a codon and contains the genetic code for one amino acid.
Move from the inside out!

17. The first “word” or start codon is always the same for every protein
The first “word” or start codon is always the same for every protein. It is always AUG. Using the genetic code wheel you can figure out which amino acid a codon represents. What amino acid is associated with the codon AUG?
There are a total of 20 different amino acids that can be arranged in different ways to make different proteins.
Methionine

18. Activity 1
Transcription in nucleus
Translation in cytoplasm

19. Translation
During translation, ribosomes decode the mRNA message (made of nucleotides) to make polypeptide chains (made of amino acids). Ribosomes read 5’  3’ on the mRNA.
Before translation can occur, mRNA must be made from DNA in transcription. Transcription occurs in the nucleus, then the mRNA travels out of the nucleus into the cytoplasm.
Translation is done by ribosomes in the cytoplasm.
nuclear pore

20. The steps in translation include:
1. Two subunits of the ribosome attach to the mRNA.

21. Ribosomes read 5’  3’. As each codon of the mRNA moves through the ribosome, the correct amino acid is brought to the ribosome by tRNA.
Each tRNA molecule has a group of three nucleotides called the anticodon. These three nucleotides pair with the nucleotides in the codon. The tRNA molecule also has an amino acid attached.
Transfer RNA
amino acid
Anticodon
(3 bases)

23. 4. Peptide bonds form between amino acids to form the polypeptide chain in a process called elongation because it makes the polypeptide chain longer.

24. This forms a peptide bond between the amino acids
This forms a peptide bond between the amino acids. This is why proteins are called polypeptides.
The empty tRNA molecule exits the mRNA and is recycled by the cell and can bind another amino acid.

25. The ribosome continues to match the codons in the mRNA with anticodons in tRNA until it reads a codon in the mRNA that says “stop.” A tRNA for “stop” does not carry an amino acid. No peptide bond will form, so the ribosome releases the mRNA and the protein.
6. Polypeptide will start to coil and bend, forming the 3-D shape of proteins (recall the 4 level of protein structure)

26. Video Clip: Translation

27. Why are proteins important?
Each protein has a specific function within living cells. Some functions of proteins are:
acting as enzymes, to speed up and regulate chemical reactions.
making pigments that determine flower color in plants
determining your blood type.
regulating cell growth and development.

28. Where in the cell does transcription occur?
-Nucleus
Where in the cell does translation occur?
-Cytoplasm

29. Chapter 12-4: Mutations

30. Mutations are changes in the genetic code
Mutations are changes in the genetic code. They come from mistakes that cells have made in copying their own DNA. If a cell has a mutation, all of its daughter cells will have that same mutation.
How many cells will have the mutation?

31. Kinds of mutations
Mutations come in many shapes and sizes.
Mutations that produce a change in a single gene are called gene mutations.
Other mutations produce changes in whole chromosomes (and affect many genes). These mutations are called chromosomal mutations.

32. Gene mutations: affect one gene
Point mutations: involve changes in one or a few nucleotides at one point in the DNA sequence.
Substitutions: where one base is changed to another. These usually affect only one amino acid.

33. Original DNA:
The fat cat ate the rat.
Mutant DNA:
The fat hat ate the rat.
(substitution)
Substitution

34. Frameshift mutations (Insertions or Deletions): an extra base is added or removed. These usually affect a large part of the protein. Remember, bases are read in groups of three, but if one base is added or removed, this shifts the “reading frame” of the genetic code and can change all amino acids after the site of the mutation
Original DNA:
The fat cat ate the rat.
Mutant DNA:
The fat cat tat eth era t.
(insertion)
Insertion

35. Frameshift mutations (Insertions or Deletions): an extra base is added or removed. These usually affect a large part of the protein. Remember, bases are read in groups of three, but if one base is added or removed, this shifts the “reading frame” of the genetic code and can change all amino acids after the site of the mutation
Deletion
TAG CAT GGA AT
AUC GUA CCU UT
Ile
Val
Pro

36. Video Clip: Point Mutations

37. Chromosomal mutations: involve changes in the number or structure of the chromosomes.
Can change the locations of genes on chromosomes
Inversion: reverses the direction of parts of the chromosomes
Translocation: part of one chromosome breaks off and attaches to another.
Original Chromosome
Inversion
Translocation

38. Video Clip: Translocation and Inversion

39. Can change the number of copies of some genes
Deletion: a part of the chromosome is lost
Duplication: there is an extra copy of part of the chromosome
Duplication
Deletion
Original Chromosome

40. Video Clip: Duplication and Deletions

41. Effects of Mutations Neutral: No effect on protein function
Harmful: Cause genetic diseases
Beneficial: Plants with extra sets of chromosomes are larger and stronger
Any new trait in a population, good or bad, is a result of a mutation.

44. AUG .

48. h

49. Leu