1. The
Scientific
Revolution

2. The Scientific Revolution
In the 1500s and 1600s the Scientific Revolution changed the way Europeans looked at the world.
People began to make conclusions based on experimentation and observation, instead of merely accepting traditional ideas.

3. Before the Scientific Revolution…
Until the mid 1500’s, European scholars accepted and believed the teachings of Ptolemy, an ancient Greek astronomer.
Ptolemy
( A.D.)
Ptolemy taught that the Earth was the center of the universe.
People felt this was common sense, and the geocentric theory was supported by the Church.
It was not until some startling discoveries caused Europeans to change the way they viewed the physical world.

4. Before the Scientific Revolution…
Ptolemy
( A.D.)
Ptolemy’s geocentric model of the solar system:
Earth
Moon
Mercury
Venus
Sun
Mars
Jupiter
Saturn
Notice, the Earth is first, and not the sun, as it should be.

5. Nicolaus Copernicus
Copernicus was a Polish astronomer who studied in Italy.
In 1543 Copernicus published On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres.
In his book, Copernicus made two conclusions:
The universe is heliocentric, or sun-centered.
The Earth is merely one of several planets revolving around the sun.

6. Nicolaus Copernicus Copernicus’ model of the solar system: Sun Moon
Mercury
Venus
Earth
Mars
Jupiter
Saturn
Notice, the sun is first, not the Earth, as Ptolemy believed.

7. Copernicus came to these conclusions using mathematical formulas.
Nicolaus Copernicus
Copernicus came to these conclusions using mathematical formulas.
The Copernican conception of the universe marked the start of modern science and astronomy.

8. The Copernican Heliocentric Model

9. Copernicus’s Scientific Theories:
Considered the founder of modern science
Believed that the earth was round and the earth revolved around the sun (contrary to popular belief)
The heliocentric theory was not new, but Copernicus established the mathematical basis
To avoid the risk of persecution, excommunication, or imprisonment because his were revolutionary and contrary to church beliefs, Copernicus worked in privacy for more than 30 years; just before his death, friends helped to published his work
Copernicus’s theory was first taught in several universities in the 1500s and permeated the scientific world by 1600

10. Reaction to Copernicus
Most scholars rejected his theory because it went against Ptolemy, the Church, and because it called for the Earth to rotate on its axis.
Many scientists of the time also felt that if Ptolemy’s reasoning about the planets was wrong, then the whole system of human knowledge could be wrong.

11. Giordano Bruno: 1548 – 1600 AD Italian monk
Believed Copernicus was right and that the earth revolved around the sun
Believed the earth was alive because it moves through space
Believed the universe is huge and everything is made up of atoms
He did not do original research; just used reason and speculation.
Bruno wandered around Europe teaching and writing for a living.
He returned to Italy and found trouble

12. Bruno vs the Inquisition
Bruno had been offered a teaching job in Venice and thought his employer would protect him.
Instead, Bruno was arrested by the Inquisition for not supporting the Geo-Centric Theory
After seven years in prison, Bruno was tried as a heretic.
He was burned at the stake for his scientific ideas.

13. Tycho Brahe
Then, in the late 1500s, the Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe provided evidence that supported Copernicus’ heliocentric theory.
Brahe set up an astronomical observatory.
Every night for years he carefully observed the sky, accumulating data about the movement of the stars and planets.

14. Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) Danish astronomer
Established an observatory to study heavenly bodies
Accumulated a lot of data on planetary movements
His tables of astronomical observation was used by Kepler to prove Copernicus’s
helio-centric hypothesis

15. Brahe
Believed that the development of astronomy relied on accurate observation
Made lots of astronomical observation with the naked eye
Built and calibrated numerous new instruments including:
Created a domicile and observatory which he called Uraniborg

16. Johannes Kepler
After Brahe’s death, his assistant, the German astronomer and mathematician Johannes Kepler, used Brahe’s data and calculated the orbits of the planets revolving around the sun.
Kepler’s calculations supported Copernicus’ heliocentric theory.
His calculations also showed that the planets moved in oval shaped orbits, and not perfect circles, as Ptolemy and Copernicus believed.
Kepler’s finding helps explain the paths followed by man-made satellites today.

17. Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) Student of mathematics and astronomy
studied with Tycho Brahe
tested hypothesis after hypothesis until he determined that planets move in ellipses
Three Laws of Planetary Motion
planets move in ellipses with sun as one focus
velocity of a planet is not uniform
equal area of the plane is covered in equal time by the planets.

18. Johannes Kepler—( )
Built on the detailed observations of Tycho Brahe.
Confirmed Copernicus’s heliocentric theory
Worked out the laws that governed planetary motion.
Discovered that orbits were elliptical, not circular.
Killed off the Ptolemaic theory of crystalline spheres and a perfect heaven.
Opens the door to the question of what the planets and stars are made of and what governs their motion.

19. Johannes Kepler ( )
Used Brahe’s work to successfully prove Copernicus’s helio-centric model mathematically
However, he disproved Brahe’s claim that planets move in circular motion – found that they move in ellipses
Discovered that the speed of planets increase as they near the sun and decrease as they go away from it
Discovered three laws of planetary motion
the planets orbit the sun in elliptical orbits; the sun is at one focus of the ellipse
An imaginary line drawn from the center of the sun to the center of a planet will sweep out equal areas in equal intervals of time
The ratio of the squares of the periods of any two planets is equal to he ratio of the cubes of their average distance from the sun
Worked in optics, discovered two new regular polyhedra, created the first proof of logarithms, and created a way to find the volume of solids of revolution (which influenced calculus)
Proof of logs based off of the work of Napier and Euclid

20. Kepler Cont.:
Very religious (protestant); believed in Intelligent Design, and that God made the Universe according to a mathematical plan
Math was considered a way to find truth, so Kepler thought that this gave man a way to find and understand the truth of the Universe
Worked as an aide to Tycho Brahe and continued Brahe’s work and used it in his own work
Established the idea of observational error

21. Galileo Galilei
Galileo Galilei was an Italian astronomer who built upon the scientific foundations laid by Copernicus and Kepler.
Galileo assembled the first telescope which allowed him to see mountains on the moon and fiery spots on the sun.
He also observed four moons rotating around Jupiter – exactly the way Copernicus said the Earth rotated around the sun.
Galileo also discovered that objects fall at the same speed regardless of weight.

22. Galileo Galilei
Galileo’s discoveries caused an uproar. Other scholars came against him because like Copernicus, Galileo was contradicting Ptolemy.
The Church came against Galileo because it claimed that the Earth was fixed and unmoving.
When threatened with death before the Inquisition in 1633, Galileo recanted his beliefs, even though he knew the Earth moved.
Galileo was put under house arrest, and was not allowed to publish his ideas.

24. The Scientific Method
By the early 1600s, a new approach to science had emerged, known as the Scientific Method.
Scientific Method – painstaking method used to confirm findings and to prove or disprove a hypothesis.
Scientists observed nature, made hypotheses, or educated guesses, and then tested these hypotheses through experiments.
Unlike earlier approaches, the scientific method did not rely on the classical thinkers or the Church, but depended upon a step-by-step process of observation and experimentation.

25. The Scientific Method State the problem Collect information
Form a hypothesis
Test the hypothesis
Record & analyze data
State a conclusion
Repeat steps 1 – 6
Scientists soon discovered that the movements of bodies in nature closely followed what could be predicted by mathematics.
The scientific method set Europe on the road to rapid technological progress.

26. The Scientific Method Newton
Sir Isaac Newton was an English scholar who built upon the work of Copernicus and Galileo.
Newton was the most influential scientist of the Scientific Revolution.
He used math to prove the existence of gravity - a force that kept planets in their orbits around the sun, and also caused objects to fall towards the earth.

27. The Scientific Method Newton
Newton published his scientific ideas in his book Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy.
Newton
He discovered laws of light and color, and formulated the laws of motion:
A body at rest stays at rest
Acceleration is caused by force
For every action there is an equal opposite reaction
He invented calculus: a method of mathematical analysis.

28. The Scientific Method
According to a popular story, Newton saw an apple fall from a tree, and wondered if the force that pulled the apple to the Earth also controlled the movement of the planets. Newton argued that nature followed laws.

29. The Scientific Method Francis Bacon
Francis Bacon was an English philosopher who wrote Advancement of Learning.
Francis Bacon
Bacon popularized the scientific method and used it with philosophy and knowledge.
Bacon argued that truth could not be known at the beginning of a question, but only at the end after a long process of investigation.

30. The Scientific Method René Descartes
Descartes was a French scientist, mathematician, and philosopher.
René Descartes
Descartes emphasized human reasoning as the best road to understanding.
Like Bacon, Descartes also believed that truth was only found after a long process of studying and investigation.
“I think, therefore I am”

31. Other Scientific Advances…
Chemistry
Robert Boyle
In the 1600s Robert Boyle distinguished between individual elements and chemical compounds.
Boyle also explained the effect of temperature and pressure on gases.

32. Robert Boyle’s first air pump

33. Other Scientific Advances…
Medicine
Andreas Vesalius
In 1543 Andreas Vesalius published On the Structure of the Human Body.
Vesalius’ book was the first accurate and detailed book on human anatomy.

34. Drawings done by Vesalius

35. Other Scientific Advances…
Medicine
William Harvey
An English scholar who described the circulation of blood for the first time.
He showed how the heart served as a pump to force blood through veins and arteries.

36. Venal valves had already been discovered, but here Harvey shows that venal blood flows only toward the heart. He ligatured an arm to make obvious the veins and their valves, then pressed blood away from the heart and showed that the vein would remain empty because it was blocked by the valve.

37. Other Scientific Advances…
Medicine
Ambroise Paré
French physician Ambroise Paré developed a new and more effective ointment for preventing infection.
Paré also developed a technique for closing wounds with stitches.

38. Other Scientific Advances…
Medicine
Anton von
Leeuwenhoek
A Dutch inventor who perfected the microscope and became the first human to see cells and microorganisms.