1. Methods Chapter 2 Lecture PowerPoint © W. W. Norton & Company, 2008

2. Introduction You May Ask Yourself Copyright © 2008 W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. 2  Research methods — standard rules that social scientists follow when trying to establish a causal relationship between social elements Quantitative methods seek to obtain information about the social world that is in, or can be converted to, numeric form. Qualitative methods attempt to collect information about the social world that cannot be readily converted to numeric form.

3. Introduction  Causality is the idea that a change in one factor results in a corresponding change in another factor. You May Ask Yourself Copyright © 2008 W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. 3

4. The Basics You May Ask Yourself Copyright © 2008 W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. 4  A deductive approach to research: 1)Starts with a theory 2)Develops a hypothesis 3)Makes empirical observations 4)Analyzes the data collected through observation to confirm, reject, or modify the original theory

5. The Basics You May Ask Yourself Copyright © 2008 W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. 5  An inductive approach to research: Starts with empirical observation Then works to form a theory Correlation exists when change is observed in two things simultaneously.

6. The Basics You May Ask Yourself Copyright © 2008 W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. 6  Causation exists when a change in one factor causes the change in the other factor. Sociologists conduct research to try to prove causation. To prove causation, correlation and time order is established and alternative explanations are ruled out.

7. The Basics You May Ask Yourself Copyright © 2008 W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. 7  A dependent variable is the outcome that a researcher is trying to explain.  An independent variable is a measured factor that the researcher believes has a causal impact on the dependent variable.

8. The Basics You May Ask Yourself Copyright © 2008 W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. 8  Hypothesis is a proposed relationship between two variables – either null hypothesis or alternative hypothesis.  Operationalization is the process by which a researcher specifies the terms and methods that will be used in a particular study.

9. The Basics You May Ask Yourself Copyright © 2008 W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. 9  Moderating variables are factors that affect the relationship between the independent and dependent variables.  Mediating variables are factors that are positioned between the independent and dependent variables but do not affect the relationship between them.

10. The Basics You May Ask Yourself Copyright © 2008 W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. 10  Measures used to evaluate variables in a hypothesis must be valid and reliable. Outcomes of a particular research study must be able to be generalized to a larger population. Researchers must be aware of the effects they have on the people, relationships, and processes they are studying.

11. The Basics You May Ask Yourself Copyright © 2008 W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. 11  Feminist methodology Treats women’s experiences as legitimate empirical and theoretical resources Promotes social science that may bring about policy change to help women Is as conscious of the role of the researcher as that of the subject(s) being studied.

12. The Basics You May Ask Yourself Copyright © 2008 W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. 12 Types of Data Collection Used in Social Research Participant ObservationExperimentation InterviewsContent Analysis Survey ResearchHistorical Methods Comparative Research

13. Ethics of Social Research You May Ask Yourself Copyright © 2008 W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. 13  Researchers must meet codified standards. These are often set by professional associations, academic institutions, or research centers when conducting studies. Researchers must guard against causing physical, emotional, or psychological harm to their subjects.

14. Ethics of Social Research You May Ask Yourself Copyright © 2008 W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. 14  Informed consent and voluntary participation are guidelines researchers use to ensure subjects know they are participating in a study and have voluntarily chosen to participate.  Public sociology refers to the practice of using sociological research, teaching, and service to reach a wider (not solely academic) audience and to influence society.

15. Concept Quiz 1. Which of the following describes the deductive approach to research? a)A researcher makes empirical observations, and based on these observations he or she develops a theory. b)A researcher develops several hypotheses to explain a correlation he or she has observed between two factors. c)A researcher establishes causation and then develops a theory to explain it. d)A researcher starts with a theory, forms a hypothesis, makes observations, and then analyzes the data to confirm, reject, or refine the original theory. You May Ask Yourself Copyright © 2008 W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. 15

16. Concept Quiz 2. What is a moderating variable? a)A factor that is positioned between the independent and dependent variables but does not affect the relationship between them b)A factor that affects only the independent variable in a hypothesis c)A factor that can replace the dependent variable in a hypothesis d)A factor that affects the relationship between the independent and dependent variables You May Ask Yourself Copyright © 2008 W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. 16

17. Concept Quiz 3.A thermometer that consistently gives readings that are five degrees cooler than the actual temperature is _____. a)valid but not reliable b)reliable but not valid c)neither reliable nor valid d)both reliable and valid You May Ask Yourself Copyright © 2008 W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. 17

18. Concept Quiz 4.Which of the following data collection methods are commonly used in social research? a)Audit study, surveys, interviews b)Historical methods, participant observation, case studies c)Natural experiment, double-blind study, comparative research d)Content analysis, census, panel survey You May Ask Yourself Copyright © 2008 W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. 18

19. Concept Quiz 5.Social research that tries to engage a nonacademic audience and influence society is often referred to as _______. a)public sociology b)macrosociology c)feminist sociology d)qualitative sociology You May Ask Yourself Copyright © 2008 W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. 19

20. Figure 2.1 | The Research Cycle

21. Figure 2.2 | The Charge of Spuriousness

22. Figure 2.3 | The Research Process (pt. 1)

23. Figure 2.3 | The Research Process (pt. 2)

24. Figure 2.4 | Percentage of Applicants Who Received Callbacks