1. Lesson 15: Rape Culture
Social Problems
Robert Wonser

2. What is ‘rape culture’?
Rape culture is a concept which links rape and sexual violence to the culture of a society, and in which prevalent attitudes and practices normalize, excuse, tolerate, or even condone rape.
1 - Williams, Joyce E. (31). George Ritzer, J. Michael Ryan, ed. The Concise Encyclopedia of Sociology. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 493. ISBN 
2 - Flintoft, Rebecca (October 2001). John Nicoletti, Sally Spencer-Thomas, Christopher M. Bollinger, ed. Violence Goes to College: The Authoritative Guide to Prevention and Intervention. Charles C Thomas. p. 134. ISBN 

3. Elements within rape culture: Objectification
What is sexual objectification?  If objectification is the process of representing or treating a person like an object (a non- thinking thing that can be used however one likes), then sexual objectification is the process of representing or treating a person like a sex object, one that serves another’s sexual pleasure.
Sexual objectification of women – turning a person into an object, a thing, or a part.

5. 1) Does the image show only part(s) of a sexualized person’s body?
How to spot it:
Headless women, for example, make it easy to see her as only a body by erasing the individuality communicated through faces, eyes, and eye contact:

6. 2) Does the image present a sexualized person as a stand-in for an object?
Or sometimes objects themselves are made to look like women, like this series of sinks and urinals shaped like women’s bodies and mouths and these everyday items, like pencil sharpeners.
The breasts of the woman in this beer ad, for example, are conflated with the cans:

7. 3) Does the image show a sexualized person as interchangeable?
Interchangeability is a common advertising theme that reinforces the idea that women, like objects, are fungible. And like objects, “more is better,” a market sentiment that erases the worth of individual women. The image below advertising Mercedes-Benz presents just part of a woman’s body (breasts) as interchangeable and additive:
This image of a set of Victoria’s Secret models has a similar effect. Their hair and skin color varies slightly, but they are also presented as all of a kind:

8. 4) Does the image affirm the idea of violating the bodily integrity of a sexualized person that can’t consent?
This ad, for example, shows an incapacitated woman in a sexualized positionwith a male protagonist holding her on a leash. It glamorizes the possibility that he has attacked and subdued her:

9. 5) Does the image suggest that sexual availability is the defining characteristic of the person? 
This ad, with the copy “now open,” sends the message that this woman is for sex.  If she is open for business, then she presumably can be had by anyone.

10. 6) Does the image show a sexualized person as a commodity (something that can be bought and sold)?
By definition, objects can be bought and sold, but some images portray women as everyday commodities.  Conflati ng women with food is a common sub- category.  As an example, Meredith Bean, Ph.D., sent in this photo of a Massive Melons “energy” drink sold in New Zealand:

11. 7) Does the image treat a sexualized person’s body as a canvas?
In the two images below, women’s bodies are presented as a particular type of object: a canvas that is marked up or drawn upon.

12. Elements of rape culture: Victim Blaming
Victim blaming is the phenomenon in which a victim of a crime or an accident is partially or entirely attributed or responsible for the transgressions committed against them.
Buchwald, Emilie (1985). Boxelder bug variations : a meditation on an idea in language and music. Minneapolis, Minn.: Milkweed Editions. ISBN 

13. Elements of Rape culture: Slut Shaming
Slut shaming is defined as the act of making a woman feel guilty or inferior for engaging in certain sexual behaviors that deviate from traditional or orthodox gender expectations, or that which may be considered to be contrary to natural or supernatural/religious law.
Some examples of behaviors which women are "slut- shamed" over include:
dressing in sexually provocative ways,
requesting access to birth control,
or even for being raped or sexually assaulted.
Lamb, Sharon (27 June 2008). "The 'Right' Sexuality for Girls.". Chronicle of Higher Education 54 (42): B14–B15. ISSN  "In Dilemmas of Desire: Teenage Girls Talk About Sexuality (Harvard University Press, 2002), Deborah L. Tolman complained that we've "desexualized girls' sexuality, substituting the desire for relationship and emotional connection for sexual feelings in their bodies." Recognizing that fact, theorists have used the concept of desire as a way to undo the double standard that applauds a guy for his lust, calling him a player, and shames a girl for hers, calling her a slut.“, Albury, Kath; Crawford, Kate (18 May 2012). "Sexting, consent and young people's ethics: Beyond Megan's Story". Continuum: Journal of Media & Cultural Studies 26 (3): 463–473. doi: / "Certainly the individualizing admonishment to 'think again' offers no sense of the broader legal and political environment in which sexting might occur, or any critique of a culture that requires young women to preserve their 'reputations' by avoiding overt demonstrations of sexual knowingness and desire. Further, by trading on the propensity of teenagers to feel embarrassment about their bodies and commingling it with the anxiety of mobiles being ever present, the ad becomes a potent mix of technology fear and body shame.“, Legge, Nancy J.; DiSanza, James R.; Gribas, John; Shiffler, Aubrey (2012). ""He sounded like a vile, disgusting pervert..." An Analysis of Persuasive Attacks on Rush Limbaugh During the Sandra Fluke Controversy". Journal of Radio & Audio Media 19 (2): 173–205. doi: / "It is also possible that the Limbaugh incident has turned "slut-shaming," or other similar attacks on women, into a "Devil-term." It may be possible that Limbaugh's insults were so thoroughly condemned that he and others (such as Bill Maher) will have a more difficult time insulting women who are not virgins, or attacking them in other sexist ways.“, and McCormack, Clare; Prostran, Nevena (2012). "Asking for It". International Feminist Journal of Politics 14 (3): 410–414. doi: /

14. Elements of rape culture: Trivializing rape
Comedy and jokes

15. Link with masculinity

16. Link with rape myths
‘no means yes’
‘she really wanted it’

18. Hand stamp to gain entry into a bar.

21. Link with advertising

22. Fashion ads implying rape

23. Dolce & gabbana

24. “Apply generously to your neck so he can smell the scent as you shake your head ‘no’”

25. Implied gang rape in a Calvin Klein ad

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