1. SCIENCE ETHICS AND RESPONSIBLE CONDUCT OF RESEARCH Neuroethics Education Module Unit 1

2. OBJECTIVES To provide understanding of various external and internal influences on the conduct of scientific work, and where ethics fits into this. To outline what sort of issues arise in the field of science ethics, recognising that these are not solely (nor even predominantly) about constraining science. To introduce the concept of responsible conduct of research, and to examine its meaning and content and be able to reflect on this in relation to particular neuroscience fields. To consider whether some extensions to the concept of responsible conduct might be justified.

3. OUTLINE A.Influences on the Development and Application of Science (Slides A1-A5) B. Science Ethics (Slides B6-B9) C. Responsible Conduct of Research (Slides C10-C15) D. Extended Responsibilities and the Role of Intermediaries (Slides D16-D20)

4. A.1 GOOD SCIENCE What is:good science? good scientific practice? a good scientist?

5. Reproducibility Peer review Ethical treatment of research subjects Accurate note-taking Honesty Avoiding conflicts of interest Publications Career advancement Use of scientific method Risk assessment and management Contributing to knowledge Benefiting humanity Attribution Originality Integrity Dissemination of findings Responsibility Competence Safety Security Qualifications Collaboration Maximising benefit and minimising harm Reliability Verification Communication Public Engagement Report misconduct Accuracy Interpretation A1. Supplementary

6. A2. Influences Shaping the Development and Application of Science – Actors Individual Scientist Immediate Colleagues Wider Scientific Community Public Policy Makers Government Regulatory Bodies Security Agencies Employer Line Manager Colleagues Senior Junior Students Professional Bodies Funders Publishers Media Industry Interest Groups

7. A3. Influences Shaping the Development and Application of Science – Structures and Values Individual Scientist Immediate Colleagues Wider Scientific Community Values Law (national, regional and international) Security Safety Regulation Institutional Procedures Committees Professional Time Pressures Policy Accreditation MoralEducation Markets Ethics

8. A4. Society for Neuroscience: Policy on Ethics “The Society for Neuroscience believes that progress in understanding the nervous system benefits human welfare. This progress depends on the honest and ethical pursuit of scientific research and the truthful representation of findings. The entire scientific endeavour is put at risk by misconduct, including fabrication, falsification, and plagiarism, and by unethical treatment of animals or human subjects.”

9. A5. What is ethics? Whether something is good or bad, right or wrong Relating to actions and behaviour About what is morally good or bad, right or wrong And the process through which we consider, understand and articulate the reasons for moral attitudes Allows us to discuss our thinking about ethical issues with others

10. B6. What is Science Ethics? – Issues These include : how scientists conduct their research and report it: e.g. are they honest about their findings; do they behave in a responsible manner when handling hazardous materials; how do they treat human and animal participants; how scientists relate to society – do they respond to public concerns, communicate well, have appropriate input into policy-making; and the impacts that scientific applications can have on society – have they assessed health and environmental risks, might their research be misused e.g. to produce weapons.

11. B7. What Science Ethics Isn’t:

12. B8. What is Science Ethics For? Ethics training within scientific courses and careers can fulfil various functions, these include: Enabling discussion of your work with others, whether that’s just friends in the pub, the general public, or funders and policy-makers. Ability to engage with and respond to societal concerns. Handling issues that might arise in your own work, that of colleagues, or the broader scientific community of which you are part – and doing so with more confidence. Avoiding ‘moral stress’. And yes, it may also be about practical utility at times for form-filling etc. It is also likely to become part of career expectations, and will already add to the skills you can provide for future employers.

13. B9. Science Ethics Neuroethics “recent progress in cognitive neuroscience raises a host of ethical issues… Some are of a practical nature, concerning the applications of neurotechnology and their likely implications for individuals and society. Others are more philosophical, concerning the way we think about ourselves as persons, moral agents and spiritual beings.” (Martha J. Farah, 2005, “Neuroethics: the practical and the philosophical”, Trends in Cognitive Science, vol. 9(1), p.34)

14. C10. Responsible Conduct of Research “There are two fundamental types of responsibilities associated with scientists. One focuses on the internal workings of science, and the responsibility to uphold community standards for doing science. The other is outward directed, focusing on scientists’ social responsibilities to the larger community, which experiences the risks, costs and benefits of science.” (Frankel and Carlson, Winter 2011)

15. C11. Concepts The scientific community: “the community of scientific workers wherever they are in the world, sharing the same general conception of nature and the same basic methodological norms” (Verhoog, 1981, p.583) Scientific responsibility: “a permanent moral duty of all scientists to participate in discussions about the role of science in society… to reflect on the practical consequences of scientific discovery and to render evaluative judgements on them and even to undertake political action to affect those consequences.” (Verhoog, 1981, p.594)

16. C12. Responsibilities to the Scientific Community in the Internal Conduct of Research “Typically, it covers nine instructional areas: (1)Data Acquisition, Management, Sharing and Ownership; (2)Conflict of Interest and Commitment; (3)Human Subjects; (4)Animal Welfare; (5)Research Misconduct; (6)Publication Practices and Responsible Authorship; (7)Mentor/Trainee Responsibilities; (8)Peer Review; and (9)Collaborative Science.” (Frankel and Carson, Winter 2011)

17. C13. Responsibilities to Research Subjects – The Principles Respect for the autonomy and dignity of persons Scientific value Social responsibility Maximising benefit and minimising harm – Risk – Valid Consent – Confidentiality – Giving Advice – Deception – Debriefing – Principles of Best Practice in Ethics Review – Further Guidance Safeguards for work with vulnerable populations Research within the National Health Services Independent practitioners Student research (BPS, Code of Human Research Ethics – Contents)

18. C14. Responsibilities for the External Impacts of Research “Science and technology have become such integral parts of society that scientists can no longer isolate themselves from societal concerns.” (National Academies, 1995) “This means that scientific responsibility extends beyond the ‘doing’ of science to require consideration to be given to the ways in which research is applied and the outcomes of this” (Rhodes, C. 2010)

19. C15. Responsibilities to the Scientific Community and to Society in the Communication and Dissemination of Research Publication and other communication of research to the scientific community is expected to be accurate, timely, original and to appropriately reflect contribution to authorship. This will allow validation and replication of results for example. Communication of research outside the scientific community can be a difficult balancing act between accuracy, being easily understood, and gaining attention.

20. D16. Extended Responsibilities Responsibilities for understanding and addressing external factors that impede the ethical application of research, e.g. political and economic factors. Global dimensions of scientific responsibility: Science as a global endeavour Implications for conceptions of the scientific community Extent to which scientific responsibility extends to prioritising work which addresses global challenges Issues of scientific justice and the need for cooperation and capacity-building.

21. D17. Extended responsibilities – Cognitive Enhancing Drugs Communication (internal dimension) – Accurate reporting of e.g. trial data, including negative results Health impacts (external dimension) – Safety and side effects e.g. consideration of implications of recreational use Social justice (global dimension) – Affordability and access. Will the drug be equitably distributed?

22. D18. Reciprocal Responsibilities What responsibilities does society have to science? – Facilitation; funding; literacy. – Duty to participate? – Scrutiny? Debate? What responsibilities does science have to society? – Addressing social concerns and implications; communication and dialogue. – Policy advisory role. – Acceptance of some limitations. The impact of intermediaries (such as the media, professional associations and policy groups, and academics in other fields)

23. D19. Role of intermediaries – Case study on role of the media Vegetative patient Scott Routley says ‘I’m not in pain’ (www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-20268044)www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-20268044 BBC News, 13 November 2012 “It’s the first time an uncommunicative, severely brain- injured patient has been able to give answers directly relevant to their care.” Uncertainties? Accuracy? Public interpretation and understanding?

24. D20. Codes of Ethics and Conduct Sources of guidance and materials – Institutional – guidance and procedures produced by your department and university – Professional – standards and codes set by professional bodies for specific disciplines – National non-governmental – standards and guidance produced by groups broadly representative of the scientific community – National governmental guidance, rules and legislation – International sources

25. ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS In your work, what internal influences are you aware of? Where does ethics fit within this? Aside from elaborating some constraints that should apply to the conduct of scientific work, what other roles does science ethics have? Identify some key internal and external elements in the conduct of neuroscience. Particularly thinking from the perspective of your own scientific field, what additional responsibilities might be justified due to the global context of scientific work.

26. BIBLIOGRAPHY Davis, M. “Instructional Assessment in the Classroom: Objectives, Methods and Outcomes” pp. 29-37 in Benya, FF., Fletcher, CH. And Hollander, RD. (eds.) 2013. Practical Guidance on Science and Engineering Ethics Education for Instructors and Administrators. Washington DC: National Academies Press. European Science Foundation. December 2000. Policy Briefing No.10, Good Scientific Practice in Research and Scholarship. Frankel, MS. And Carlsson, R. “Reshaping responsible conduct of research education”, AAAS Professional Ethics Report, Vol.xxiv(1), Winter 2011. Morein-Zamir and Sahakian. 2009. “Neuroethics and public engagement training needed for neuroscientists” Trends in Cognitive Science, Vol.14(2): 49-51. National Academies. 2009. On Being A Scientist: A Guide to Responsible Conduct in Research. Washington DC: National Academies Press. Stemwedel, JD. 30 September 2013. “What do we owe you, and who’s we anyway? Obligations of scientists (part 1)”, Scientific American Blogs, http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/doing-good-science/2013/09/30/what-do-we- owe-you-and-whos-we-anyway-obligations-of-scientists-part-1. http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/doing-good-science/2013/09/30/what-do-we- owe-you-and-whos-we-anyway-obligations-of-scientists-part-1 Velasquez, M., Andre, C., Shanks, T. and Meyer, MJ. “What is Ethics?”, Markkula Center for Applied Ethics, www.scu.edu/ethics/practicing/decision/whatisethics.html. Revised 2010. www.scu.edu/ethics/practicing/decision/whatisethics.html. Revised 2010 Verhoog, H. 1981. “The Responsibilities of Scientists”. Minerva, Vol.19(4): 582-604.